Empresa VII
The Rule of Reason over Affection
The prince must learn to distinguish between the tyranny of natural passions and the guiding light of reason.
Our affections are born with us, and reason arrives only after many years, when it already finds them in possession of the will, which acknowledges them as its masters, led on by a false appearance of good—until reason, gathering strength with time and experience, claims its rule and sets itself against the tyranny of our inclinations and appetites. For princes, this realization takes longer because their affections grow stronger amid the delights of the palace. And since those who attend them aspire to favor—and favor almost always enters through the will rather than reason—they all set themselves to flattering the will, laying snares for it, and dazzling reason.12 Let the prince, then, know these arts; let him arm himself against his affections and against those who make use of them to govern him.3 There is a great deal of neglect when it comes to forming the minds of princes. We pull out in good time the fruitless weeds that spring up among the grain, and yet we let bad affections and passions that oppose reason grow in them. Princes have many Galens for the body, and barely one Epictetus for the spirit—which suffers no lesser ailments and diseases; rather, these are graver than those of the body, insofar as the part that belongs to the spirit is nobler.4 If the spirit had a brow onto which the pallor of its disordered affections could be transferred, we would pity many whom we judge happy, though they have their soul scorched with the fever of their appetites.5 If a tyrant's spirit could be seen, you would see in it the welts and bruises of his passions. Fierce storms of affection rise within his breast, and because of them, his reason is so disturbed and clouded that he no longer recognizes the truth, perceiving things not as they are, but as his passion presents them. This leads to a diversity of judgments and opinions, and to the varying value placed on things depending on the light in which they are viewed. Affections work just like looking through a spyglass: on one side, things appear large and bulky, while on the other, they appear reduced and small.67 The lenses are the same, and the objects are the same; the difference is that on one side, the visual rays spread and multiply as they move from the center to the edge, making objects seem larger, while on the other side, they move from the edge to the center and arrive diminished. That is how great the difference is between looking at things one way or the other.8
The Deception of Ambition
Ambition and self-deception lead princes to misjudge the true nature of power and the duties of their office.
At the same time, though in different kingdoms, the Infante Don Jaime, son of King Don Jaime II of Aragon, and the Infante Don Alonso, son of King Don Dionisio of Portugal, were both eyeing the succession to the Crown. The first renounced it against his father's wishes, while the second tried to tear it from his own father's brow by force of arms.9 The one weighed the cares and dangers of reigning and chose the religious life as quieter and happier. The other judged life without command and scepter to be useless and burdensome, and he placed his desire and appetite to reign above the law of nature.10 The one looked at the circumference of the Crown, which ends in flowers, and it seemed to him both splendid and delightful. The other considered its point or center, from which the lines of cares and toil radiate.11 All human actions have some kind of good as their end, and because we deceive ourselves about what that is, we go astray. The greatest greatness seems small to us when it is in our own power, and very great when it is in someone else's. We fail to notice our own vices, yet we see them clearly in others. How giant-like other people's tyrannical designs appear to us! And how like dwarfs our own appear! We mistake vices for virtues, wanting ambition to pass for greatness of spirit, cruelty for justice, prodigality for generosity, and recklessness for courage—all while failing to distinguish the honorable from the evil, or the useful from the harmful. That is how things deceive us when we look at them through only one side of the spectacles of our affections or passions; only favors should be looked at through both.12 Let the favors you receive always seem very great, and those you give, very small. King Don Enrique the Fourth not only viewed them this way, but he even forgot the favors he had granted, kept only the services he had received in mind, and treated them as a debt he intended to repay immediately.13 A prince shouldn't think that a favor he grants is a brand marking the receiver as his slave; that wouldn't be generosity, but tyranny—a kind of trade in wills, like the slave trade on the coasts of Guinea, where people are bought at the price of favors.14
Liberality and the Imitation of God
A prince should exercise generosity without imposing obligations, imitating divine freedom in his governance.
Whoever gives shouldn't think they're imposing an obligation. The one who receives it should think that the obligation remains with him.15 So let the prince imitate God, who gives freely and doesn't reproach.✦16 Whether deciding to wage war, negotiating peace treaties, or dealing with injuries given or received, always use the same lens of reason so that everything is viewed with equal measure.17 No one has greater need of this discrimination and justice in considering affairs than the prince, who is the balance-point of his kingdom and must form a perfect judgment of things so that his government is sound—whose scales will run out of true if his affections and passions load them, and reason does not level them.18 For these reasons, his teachers should take great care to free the prince's understanding from illusion—showing him the errors of his will and the vanity of his notions—so that, free and dispassionate, he may thoroughly examine all affairs. For if one carefully considers the falls of empires, the upheavals of states, and the violent deaths of princes, almost all have sprung from the disobedience of the affections and passions to reason. The public good has no greater enemy than these and private ends.19
The Prince as a Public Idea
The prince must transcend his private temperament to embody the office of government, using dissimulation as a tool of statecraft.
It is not my judgment that the affections should be cut off or deadened in the prince, because without them he would be useless for every generous action, nature not having given love, anger, hope, and fear in vain. These, if they are not virtue itself, are companions of virtue, and means by which it is attained and by which we act more rightly.20 The harm lies in their abuse and disorder, and that is what a prince must correct, ensuring that his actions are governed not by his emotions, but by reason of state. Even the affections that are ordinary in other men do not suit majesty.21 Charles V used to lose his temper in private, but never when he was acting in his official capacity as emperor. Then the prince is more an idea of a ruler than a man. More everyone's than his own.22 He must act not according to his own inclinations, but according to the requirements of government. Not by his own temperament, but by art. His habits should be more political than natural. His desires should spring more from the heart of the commonwealth than from his own.23 Private individuals govern themselves in their own way. Princes, according to the common good.24 In private individuals, hiding their passions is double-dealing. In princes, it is a matter of state.25 Tiberius showed no emotion when Piso, who had carried out the death of Germanicus under his orders, was brought before him. Whoever rules over everyone must change his affections with everyone, or, when it suits, show himself stripped of them. One and the same hour must see him severe and gentle, strict in justice and merciful, generous and sparing, according to the variety of cases. Tiberius was a master of this; he blended signs of anger and mildness on his face so skillfully that no one could read his mind.26 The good prince masters himself and serves the people. If a leader doesn't master and disguise their natural inclinations, they'll always act the same way, revealing their intentions—which violates a key political rule: vary your actions to conceal your designs.27 All princes are in danger because people read their nature, and through it win their will—which it is so important to keep free if they are to know how to govern. Once the ministers recognize the prince's inclination, they flatter him, giving him to understand that they are of the same temper. They pursue their own fixed ideas, and the result is a government run by the obstinate.28 When it suits him to win hearts and public applause, the prince should pretend that he naturally loves or hates the same things the people love and hate.
Curing the Passions of Shame and Pity
Excessive shame and misplaced pity are weaknesses that must be pruned to ensure the prince can exercise justice.
Among the affections and passions, Aristotle includes shame, yet he excludes it from the list of moral virtues because it is a fear of disgrace; he argues it shouldn't affect a good and steadfast person who, acting according to reason, ought to have nothing to be ashamed of. But Saint Ambrose calls it a virtue that brings proper balance to our actions.29 This could be understood as that honest, natural shame that keeps us from falling into base and disgraceful behavior—a sign of a good nature and proof that the seeds of virtue are in the soul, even if they aren't yet well rooted. Aristotle, meanwhile, is likely speaking of a vicious, intemperate shame that harms virtue, much like a light dew that nourishes plants but, if it turns to frost, scorches and burns them.30 No virtue has free exercise where this passion is excessive, and none is more harmful in princes, nor one that feeds more greedily on the generosity of their spirits, whose candor—if it is not already mere lack of courage—is ashamed to refuse, to contradict, to rebuke, and to punish.31 They shrink within their own greatness, dazzled and frightened by it, and instead of being masters, they become slaves to themselves and to others. The color of shame spreads across their faces.32 "One ought to adapt to the times."33 (Seneca)34 (as seen in Medea.)35 Shame, which ought to have been on the face of the flatterer, the liar, and the wrongdoer; and, fleeing from themselves, they let themselves be deceived and governed.36 They offer and give whatever is asked of them without examining the merits, simply yielding to the demand. They follow others' opinions even when they know they're wrong, because they lack the firmness to push back, preferring to be persuaded rather than to persuade; this leads to the gravest troubles for them and for their states. The brow of the one who governs must not be clouded with embarrassment; it must always show itself calm and firm.37 And so it is very important to cure princes of this passion and break this natural bashfulness in them, arming their spirit and their face with courage and firmness against flattery, lies, deceit, and malice, so that they can rebuke and punish those things while keeping royal integrity in all their actions and movements.38 This passion or weakness was very powerful in Kings Juan II and Enrique IV, and so both reputation and the crown were put in such danger under them. In curing this passion, great care is needed, because while the other vices should be cut out at the root like brambles, this one should only be pruned: strip away what is excessive and leave alive that part of shame that guards the virtues and orders all of a person's actions—because without this curb the prince's spirit would run wild, and, caring nothing for indecency or disgrace, he would easily follow his whims, made easy by power, and would rush headlong to ruin.39 If a sense of shame can barely be kept even by good means, what would happen if we took it away?40 Once Tiberius lost it, he gave himself over to every vice and tyranny. That’s why Plato said that Jupiter, fearing the human race would be lost, ordered Mercury to distribute a sense of shame and justice among men so that humankind could be preserved.41 Equally harmful in princes—and not far removed from that same passion—is the passion of pity, when it easily takes hold of the mind and prevents reason and justice from acting. Because they shrink from saddening others through rebuke or punishment, they fail to oppose troubles even when they recognize them, choosing instead to let things run their course. They turn a deaf ear to the cries of the people. Public harms don't move them to compassion, and yet they feel it for three or four people who are the authors of those harms. They find themselves confounded by another's crime, and to free themselves from their own discomfort, they would rather overlook or pardon it than investigate it.42 It's a failure of reason and a cowardice of prudence, and it's vital to cure this mental sickness in time. But this should be handled with the same care as vicious shame: only the weak and soft strain of pity—the part that prevents a person from acting with firm courage—should be cut away, while leaving that generous compassion which is a virtue proper to rule, provided reason dictates it without harming the public peace.43 Both passions—shame and pity—are overcome and brought under control by a few acts that oppose them; acts that dry up and harden that tenderness of heart and fragility of spirit, making the mind robust and freeing it from these servile fears. If the prince can manage just a few times—even in smaller matters—to keep his mind firm and steady, and to recognize his authority and his duty, he'll be able to do the same in greater ones later on.
Overcoming Fear and Obstinacy
Fear and slothful obstinacy in youth are corrected through experience, public engagement, and the pursuit of glory.
It all depends on shaking free once, and making yourself feared and revered.44 Two other passions are harmful to youth: fear and obstinacy. Fear occurs when a prince is afraid of everything and, distrusting his own actions, dares neither to speak nor to act; he thinks he can get nothing right, avoids appearing in public, and prefers solitude. This comes from a sheltered, womanish upbringing, withdrawn from human company, and from lack of experience.45 And so it is cured by them: by bringing him audiences with subjects and with foreigners, and by taking him out through the streets and squares so that he may come to know the people and grasp things as they are, not as imagination paints them.46 In his private rooms the gentlemen of his father's chamber, and courtiers of courage, wit, and experience, should have free entry and free conversation with him, as was the practice in Spain until the time of King Philip II, who, burned by the wild excesses of his son Prince Don Carlos, restricted others' access to him and, fleeing one problem, fell into another more likely to occur: a shy withdrawal harmful in anyone who must command and make himself obeyed.47 Obstinacy is partly fear and partly a natural sloth, occurring when the prince refuses to act and remains unmoved by instruction.48 This coldness of spirit is cured by the fire and goads of glory, much as the stubbornness of young horses is cured with spurs: by setting the prince on the right path little by little and praising the steps he takes, even if that praise is uneven or feigned.
Read the original Latin
Nacen con nosotros los afectos, y la razón llega después de muchos años, cuando ya los halla apoderados de la voluntad, que los reconoce por señores, llevada de una falsa apariencia de bien, hasta que la razón, cobrando fuerzas con el tiempo y la experiencia, reconoce su imperio, y se opone a la tiranía de nuestras inclinaciones y apetitos. En los príncipes tarda más este reconocimiento, porque con las delicias de los palacios son más robustos los afectos. Y, como las personas que les asisten aspiran al valimiento, y casi siempre entra la gracia por la voluntad, y no por la razón, todos se aplican a lisonjear y poner acechanzas a aquélla y deslumhrar a ésta. Conozca, pues, el príncipe estas artes, ármese contra sus afectos y contra los que se valen délias para gobernalle.
Gran descuido hay en componer los ánimos de los príncipes. Arrancamos con tiempo las yerbas infructuosas que nacen entre las mieses, y dejamos crecer en ellos los malos afectos y pasiones que se oponen a la razón. Tienen los príncipes muchos Galenos para el cuerpo, y apenas un Epicteto para el ánimo, el cual no padece menores achaques y enfermedades; antes son más graves que las del cuerpo, cuanto es más noble parte la del ánimo. Si en él hubiese frente donde se trasladase la palidez de sus malas afecciones, tendríamos compasión a muchos que juzgamos por felices y tienen abrasada el alma con la fiebre de sus apetitos. Si se viese el ánimo de un tirano, se verían en él las ronchas y cardenales de sus pasiones. En su pecho se levantan tempestades furiosas de afectos, con los cuales, perturbada y ofuscada la razón, desconoce la verdad, y aprehende las cosas, no como son, sino como se las propone la pasión. De donde nace la diversidad de juicios y opiniones y la estimación varia de los objetos, según la luz a que se los pone» No de otra suerte nos sucede con los afectos que cuando miramos las cosas con los antojos largos; donde por una parte se representan muy crecidas y corpulentas, y por la otra muy disminuidas y pequeñas. Unos mismos son los cristales y unas mismas las cosas; pero está la diferencia en que por la una parte pasan las especies o los rayos visuales del centro a la circunferencia, con que se van esparciendo y multiplicando, y se antojan mayores los cuerpos; y de la otra pasan de la circunferencia al centro, y llegan disminuidos: tanta diferencia hay de mirar desta u de aquella manera las cosas.
A un mismo tiempo (aunque en diversos reinos) miraban la sucesión a la Corona el infante don Jaime, hijo del rey don Jaime el Segundo de Aragón, y el infante don Alonso, hijo del rey don Dionisio de Portugal. El primero, contra la voluntad de su padre, la renunció, y el segundo procuraba con las armas quitársela al suyo de la frente. El uno consideraba los cuidados y peligros de reinar, y elegía la vida religiosa por más quieta y feliz. El otro juzgaba por inútil y pesada la vida sin el mando y ceptro, y anteponía el deseo y apetito de reinar a la ley de naturaleza. El uno miraba a la circunferencia de la Corona, que se remata en flores, y le parecía vistosa y deleitable. El otro consideraba el punto o centro della, de donde salen las líneas de los desvelos y fatigas. Todas las acciones de los hombres tienen por fin alguna especie de bien, y, porque nos engañamos en su conocimiento, erramos. La mayor grandeza nos parece pequeña en nuestro poder, y muy grande en el ajeno.
Desconocemos en nosotros los vicios, y los notamos en los demás. ¡Qué gigantes se nos representan los intentos tiranos de otros! ¡Qué enanos los nuestros! Tenemos por virtudes los vicios, queriendo que la ambición sea grandeza de ánimo; la crueldad, justicia; la prodigalidad, liberalidad; la temeridad, valor; sin que la prudencia llegue a discernir lo honesto de lo malo, y lo útil de lo dañoso. Así nos engañan las cosas, cuando las miramos por una parte de los antojos de nuestros afectos o pasiones; solamente los beneficios se han de mirar por ambas. Los que se reciben parezcan siempre muy grandes; los que se dan, muy pequeños. No solamente le parecían así al rey don Enrique el Cuarto, pero aun los olvidaba, y solamente tenía presentes los servicios que recibía, y como deuda trataba de pagallos luego. No piense el príncipe que la merced que hace es marca con que deja señalado por esclavo a quien la recibe; que ésta no sería generosidad, sino tiranía y una especie de comercio de voluntades, como de esclavos en las costas de Guinea, comprándolas a precio de gracias.
Quien da no ha de pensar que impone obligación. El que la recibe piense que queda con ella. Imite, pues, el príncipe a Dios, que da liberalmente, y no zahiere.
En las resoluciones de mover la guerra, en los tratados de la paz, en las injurias que se hacen y en las que se reciben, sean siempre unos mismos los cristales de la razón, por donde se miren con igualdad. A nadie conviene más esta diferencia y justicia en la consideración de las cosas que al príncipe, que es el fiel de su reino, y ha de hacer perfecto juicio de las cosas para que sea acertado su gobierno, cuyas balanzas andarán desconcertadas si en ellas cargaren sus afectos y pasiones, y no las igualare la razón. Por todo esto conviene que sea grande el cuidado y atención de los maestros en desengañar el entendimiento del príncipe, dándole a conocer los errores de la voluntad y la vanidad de sus aprehensiones, para que, libre y desapasionado, haga perfecto examen de las cosas. Porque, si se consideran bien las caídas de los Imperios, las mudanzas de los Estados y las muertes violentas de los príncipes, casi todas han nacido de la inobediencia de los afectos y pasiones a la razón. No tiene el bien público mayor enemigo que a ellas y a los fines particulares.
No es mi dictamen que se corten los afectos o que se amortigüen en el príncipe, porque sin ellos quedaría inútil para todas las acciones generosas, no habiendo la naturaleza dado en vano el amor, la ira, la esperanza y el miedo. Los cuales, si no son virtud, son compañeros délia, y medios con que se alcanza y con que obramos más acertadamente. El daño está en el abuso y desorden dellos, que es lo que se ha de corregir en el príncipe, procurando que en sus acciones no se gobierne por sus afectos, sino por la razón de Estado. Aun los que son ordinarios en los demás hombres, no convienen a la majestad. En su retrete solía enojarse Carlos Quinto, pero no cuando representaba la persona del emperador. Entonces más es el príncipe una idea de gobernador que hombre. Más de todos que suyo. No ha de obrar por inclinación, sino por razón de gobierno.
No por genio propio, sino por arte. Sus costumbres más han de ser políticas que naturales. Sus deseos más han de nacer del corazón de la república que del suyo. Los particulares se gobiernan a su modo. Los príncipes, según la conveniencia común. En los particulares es doblez disimular sus pasiones. En los príncipes, razón de Estado. Ningún afecto se descubrió en Tiberio cuando Pisón, ejecutada por su orden la muerte de Germánico, se le puso delante.
Quien gobierna a todos, con todos ha de mudar de afecto, o mostrarse, si conviniere, desnudo dellos. Una misma hora le ha de ver severo y benigno, justiciero y clemente, liberal y parco, según la variedad de los casos.' 0 El que fue gran maestro Tiberio, viéndose en su frente tan mezcladas las señales de ira y mansedumbre, que no se podía penetrar por ellas su ánimo. El buen príncipe domina a sí mismo y sirve al pueblo. Si no se vence y disfraza sus inclinaciones naturales, obrará siempre uniformemente, y se conocerán por ellas sus fines, contra un principal documento político de variar ias acciones para celar los intentos. Todos los príncipes peligran porque les penetran el natural, y por él les ganan la voluntad, que tanto conviene mantener libre para saber gobernar. En reconociendo los ministros la inclinación del príncipe, le lisonjean, dando a entender que son del mismo humor. Siguen sus temas, y vienen a ser un gobierno de obstinados.
Cuando conviniere ganar los ánimos y el aplauso común, finja el príncipe que naturalmente ama o aborrece lo mismo que ama y aborrece el pueblo.
Entre los afectos y pasiones cuenta Aristóteles la vergüenza, y la excluye del número de las virtudes morales, porque es un miedo de la infamia, y parece que no puede caer en el varón bueno y constante, el cual, obrando conforme a la razón, de ninguna cosa se debe avergonzar. Pero San Ambrosio la llama virtud, que da modo a las acciones. Lo cual se podría entender de aquella vergüenza ingenua y natural que nos preserva de incurrir en cosas torpes y ignominiosas, y es señal de un buen natural, y argumento que están en el ánimo las semillas de las virtudes, aunque no bien arraigadas, y que Aristóteles habla de la vergüenza viciosa y deetemplada, la cual es nociva a las virtudes, así como un rocío ligero cría y sustenta las yerbas, y, si pasa a ser escarcha, las cuece y abrasa. Ninguna virtud tiene libre exercicio donde esta pasión es sobrada, y ninguna es más dañosa en los príncipes, ni que más se cebe en la generosidad de sus ánimos, cuya candidez (si ya no es poco valor) se avergüenza de negar, de contradecir, de reprender y de castigar. Encógense en su grandeza, y en ella se asombran y atemorizan, y de señores, se hacen esclavos de sí mismos y de los otros. Por sus rostros se esparce el color de la verlo. «Tempori aptari decet.» (SEN.
, in Med.) güenza, que había de estar en el del adulador, del mentiroso y del delincuente, y, huyendo de sí mismos, se dejan engañar y gobernar. Ofrecen y dan lo que les piden sin examinar méritos, rendidos a la demanda. Siguen las opiniones ajenas, aunque conozcan que no son acertadas, por no tener constancia para replicar, eligiendo antes el ser convencidos que convencer; de donde nacen gravísimos inconvenientes a ellos y a sus Estados. No se ha de empachar la frente del que gobierna; siempre se ha de mostrar serena y firme. Y así, conviene mucho curar a los príncipes esta pasión, y rompelles este empacho natural, armándoles de valor y constancia el ánimo y el rostro contra la lisonja, la mentira, el engaño y la malicia, para que puedan reprehendellas y castigallas, conservando la entereza real en todas sus acciones y movimientos. Este afecto o flaqueza fue muy poderosa en los reyes don Juan el Segundo y don Enrique el Cuarto, y así peligró tanto en ellos la reputación y la corona. En la cura desta pasión es menester gran tiento, porque, si bien los demás vicios se han de cortar de raíz, como las zarzas, éste se ha de podar solamente, quitándole lo superfluo, y dejando viva aquella parte de vergüenza que es guarda de las virtudes, y la que compone todas las acciones del hombre, porque sin este freno quedaría indómito el ánimo del príncipe, y no reparando en la indecencia e infamia, fácilmente seguiría sus antojos, facilitados del poder, y se precipitaría.
Si apenas con buenas artes se puede conservar la vergüenza, ¿qué sería si se la quitásemos? En perdiéndola Tiberio, se entregó a todos los vicios y tiranías. Por esto dijo Platón que, temiendo Júpiter no se perdiese el género humano, ordenó a Mercurio que repartiese entre los hombres la vergüenza y la justicia, para que se pudiese conservar.
No es menos dañoso en los príncipes, ni muy distante desta pasión, la de la conmiseración, cuando ligeramente se apodera del ánimo y no deja obrar a la razón y a la justicia, porque, condoliéndose de entristecer a otros o con la reprehensión o con el castigo, no se oponen a los inconvenientes, aunque los reconozcan, y dejan correr las cosas. Hácense sordos a los clamores del pueblo. No les mueven a compasión los daños públicos, y la tienen de tres o cuatro que son autores dellos. Hállanse confusos en el delito ajeno, y, por desembarazarse de sí mismos, eligen antes el disimular o el perdonar que el averigualle. Flaqueza es de razón y cobardía de la prudencia, y conviene mucho curar con tiempo esta enfermedad del ánimo. Pero con la misma advertencia que la de la vergüenza viciosa, para que solamente se corte aquella parte de conmiseración flaca y afeminada, que impide el obrar varonilmente; y se deje aquella compasión generosa (virtud propia del principado) cuando la dicta la razón sin daño del sosiego público. La una y otra pasión de vergüenza y conmiseración se vencen y sujetan con algunos actos opuestos a ellas, que enjuguen y desequen aquella ternura del corazón, aquella fragilidad del ánimo, y le hagan robusto, librándole destos temores serviles. A pocas veces que pueda el príncipe (aunque sea en cosas menores) tener el ánimo firme y constante, y reconocer su potestad y su obligación, podrá después hacer lo mismo en las mayores.
Todo está en desempacharse una vez, y hacerse temer y reverenciar.
Otras dos pasiones son dañosas a la juventud: el miedo y la obstinación. El miedo, cuando el príncipe lo teme todo, y, desconfiado de sus acciones, ni se atreve a hablar ni a obrar; piensa que en nada ha de saber acertar; rehusa el salir en público, y ama la soledad. Esto nace de la educación femenil, retirada del trato humano, y de la falta de experiencia. Y así, se cura con ellas introduciéndole audiencias de los subditos y de los forasteros, y sacándole por las calles y plazas a que reconozca la gente, y conciba las cosas como son, y no como se las pinta la imaginación. En su cuarto tengan libre entrada y comunicación los gentiles-hombres de la cámara de su padre y los cortesanos de valor, ingenio y experiencia, como se practicó en España hasta el tiempo del rey Filipe Segundo, el cual, escarmentado en las desenvolturas del príncipe don Carlos, su hijo, estrechó la comunicación de los demás, y, huyendo de un inconveniente, dio en otro más fácil a suceder, que es el encogimiento, dañoso en quien ha de mandar y hacerse obedecer. La obstinación es parte del miedo y parte de una ignavia natural cuando el príncipe no quiere obrar y se está quedo a vista de la enseñanza. Esta frialdad del ánimo se cura con el fuego y estímulos de la gloria, como con las espuelas lo reacio de los potros, poniendo poco a poco al príncipe en el camino, y alabándole los pasos que diere, aunque sea con alabanzas desiguales o fingidas.
Scripture echoes
- ↩Jas.1.5 — But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask from God, who gives to all generously and without reproach, and it will be given to him.
Notes
- 1 ↩gracia here is court favor (the prince's good graces), not theological grace; rendered as 'favor'.
- 2 ↩Source deslumhrar read as deslumbrar (to dazzle/blind); aquélla = the will, ésta = reason.
- 3 ↩délias read as de ellas (of them, the affections); gobernalle as gobernarle (to govern him).
- 4 ↩Galenos / Epicteto are used typologically: physicians of the body versus a moral physician of the soul (Epictetus). Rendered as proper names to keep the classical contrast.
- 5 ↩frente is the visible forehead/brow: the counterfactual is that soul-sickness would show as facial pallor if the spirit had a face.
- 6 ↩Source has a stray » before No (según la luz a que se los pone» No de otra suerte...). Treated as sentence break between the causal clause and the optical simile.
- 7 ↩antojos largos = long eyeglasses/spyglass (early modern optical instrument), not 'cravings'.
- 8 ↩especies retains the early modern optical/psychological sense of sensible species (forms conveyed to the eye), paired with rayos visuales.
- 9 ↩"al suyo de la frente" is read as snatching the crown from his own father's brow (frente = forehead, where a crown sits); "el suyo" parallels "su padre" in the first clause.
- 10 ↩"ceptro" is the period spelling of cetro (scepter). "Ley de naturaleza" is natural law, here the natural duty of a son toward his father.
- 11 ↩"della" = de ella (of the Crown). "Desvelos" are anxious, sleepless cares of rule, not mere insomnia.
- 12 ↩antojos here continues the optical metaphor (spectacles/lenses), not mere cravings; 'por una parte' / 'por ambas' means through one lens versus both.
- 13 ↩pagallos is historical Spanish for pagarlos ('to pay them'); 'los' continues the benefits of s6—those given versus those received.
- 14 ↩gracias here means royal favors/grants used as purchase-price, not theological grace; merced is the prince's favor or bounty.
- 15 ↩Spanish «ella» points back to «obligación» in the previous sentence: the recipient, not the giver, is to carry the sense of remaining bound.
- 16 ↩«zahiere» (from zaherir) means to cast a gift up to someone, reproach, or make them feel the sting of having received; not mere mild correction.
- 17 ↩cristales de la razón: optical metaphor—lenses (or glass) of reason through which affairs are seen; not crystal as gemstone.
- 18 ↩diferencia here means careful discrimination/distinguishing (not mere 'difference'); fiel is the tongue or balance-point of a scale, the prince as the kingdom's equilibrium.
- 19 ↩ellas refers back to the affections and passions (afectos y pasiones) in s4; fines particulares = private/self-interested aims as opposed to the public good.
- 20 ↩Source «délia» is the early-modern contraction of «de ella», referring to virtue (virtud).
- 21 ↩«Los» continues the prior reference to the affections (afectos); made explicit in English for clarity.
- 22 ↩Elliptical sententious style retained; subject is the prince (from the preceding sentence).
- 23 ↩república here means the body politic / commonwealth, not a republican constitution.
- 24 ↩Elliptical parallel to the previous sentence: private persons govern themselves their own way; princes [govern] according to the common interest.
- 25 ↩Elliptical contrast with the previous sentence: concealing passions is duplicity in private persons; in princes it is razón de Estado.
- 26 ↩Leading '0' in the source is treated as a pagination/OCR artifact and omitted.
- 27 ↩Source 'variar ias acciones' read as 'variar las acciones' (OCR/typo).
- 28 ↩'temas' rendered as fixed ideas/pet preoccupations (Golden Age political sense), not modern 'topics'.
- 29 ↩da modo a las acciones: modo as measure, proportion, or becoming form for conduct; rendered as 'proper measure'.
- 30 ↩Source reading 'deetemplada' treated as intended 'destemplada' (intemperate/untempered).
- 31 ↩candidez can mean candor/ingenuousness or naive openness; 'poco valor' rendered as lack of courage rather than mere low worth.
- 32 ↩Source ends 'el color de la verlo'; next section continues with the residual 'güenza...'. Treated as intended 'el color de la vergüenza' (the blush/color of shame).
- 33 ↩Latin maxim Tempori aptari decet (classical/Senecan register); given as quoted Latin in the source; rendered into modern English for readability.
- 34 ↩Citation fragment only; continues in the next section as ', in Med.)'. Left as attribution stub rather than expanded.
- 35 ↩Bibliographic close of the Seneca citation begun in the previous section: «Tempori aptari decet.» (SEN., in Med.). Med. = Seneca's Medea.
- 36 ↩Source opens mid-word as «güenza» (continuation of «vergüenza» from the preceding discourse on the blush of shame on princes' faces). «en el del adulador» is read as «en el [rostro] del adulador», with «rostro» supplied from the nearby «rostros» context.
- 37 ↩«empachar la frente» is the figurative blush/clouding of the forehead from bashful shame, not literal obstruction.
- 38 ↩Early modern clitic spellings preserved in sense: «rompelles» = romperles; «reprehendellas» / «castigallas» = reprehenderlas / castigarlas (flattery, lies, deceit, and malice).
- 39 ↩«desta» = de esta. The surgical metaphor contrasts radical cutting (other vices as brambles) with careful pruning of excess shame only, preserving natural modesty as a moral brake.
- 40 ↩vergüenza here is the healthy sense of shame (modesty/restraint) that the prior section says must be pruned but not rooted out—not mere embarrassment.
- 41 ↩Alludes to the Protagoras myth (Plato): Zeus sends Hermes with αἰδώς (aidos, shame/respect) and δίκη (dike, justice). para que se pudiese conservar most naturally takes género humano as subject.
- 42 ↩averigualle = averiguarle: to inquire into / get to the bottom of the offense; rendered as 'look into it' for modern readability while keeping investigative force.
- 43 ↩flaca y afeminada / obrar varonilmente: period gendered moral vocabulary for soft vs. firm princely resolve. Rendered as 'weak and soft' and 'acting with firm courage' to stay modern-readable without inventing a different moral contrast.
- 44 ↩desempacharse: to cast off hesitation/constraint and act freely (not merely to hurry); rendered as 'shaking free' to keep the political sense of throwing off soft scruple after the preceding discussion of shame and weak compassion.
- 45 ↩femenil names a soft, secluded upbringing in the mirror-for-princes sense (education apart from public life), not a modern claim about women's nature as such.
- 46 ↩ellas most naturally points back to human company and experience (s3), whose reverse is enacted by the audiences and public outings named here.
- 47 ↩gentiles-hombres de la cámara = gentlemen of the bedchamber / chamber gentlemen. encogimiento = bashful shrinking or timid reserve, not mere physical crouching.
- 48 ↩ignavia is Latinate for sloth, listlessness, or sluggish unwillingness to act; not mere ordinary laziness.
Idea de un príncipe político-cristiano representada en cien empresas (Empresas políticas) companion
Rule yourself daily, not just on retreat
Chosen Portion turns the mirror into a daily practice — a short reading and examining question each morning before you lead anyone.
Chosen Portion makes the mirror daily: the ruler-formation questions this collection preserves become a two-minute morning examination in the app.
- A daily formation reading drawn from centuries of counsel to those in authority
- One pointed examination question a day — two minutes, before the meetings start
- Track your practice over weeks and watch the examined life become a habit