Empresa IV
The Necessity of Princely Wisdom
Command requires a keen intellect and the support of the sciences, as ruling is a task of reason rather than mere chance.
To command, learning is needed; to obey, natural good judgment is enough, and sometimes ignorance alone. When planning a building, the mind does the work.1 In the construction, the hand.2 Command is studious and keen-eyed. Obedience is almost always rough and blind. By nature, the person with more intelligence commands. The other commands by succession, by election, or by force—cases in which chance has a greater share than reason.3 Therefore, the sciences should be counted among the political instruments of ruling. Justinian believed that imperial majesty ought to be adorned not only with arms but also with laws, so that it would know how to govern in both war and peace.4
Learning as a Tool of Statecraft
While natural judgment is valuable, a prince must cultivate learning to avoid dependence on others and to secure the respect of his realm.
This is what this emblem means in the artillery piece leveled with the square (for better aim)—the square a symbol of the laws and of justice (as we will say)—because by justice peace and war must be set true, without either one straying from what is just, and both aiming straight at the mark of reason through prudence and wisdom.5 For this reason, when King Alfonso of Naples and Aragon was asked whether he owed more to arms or to learning, he replied, "In books, I have learned arms and the rights of arms."6 Someone might take this adornment of learning as belonging more to the body of the republic—signified by majesty—than to the person of the prince, whose attention to public business cannot be turned aside to the study of letters, and might think it enough that he favor and reward gifted minds so that the sciences flourish in his kingdoms, as happened with the same emperor Justinian, who, though bare of them himself, made his government glorious with the learned men he kept close to him.7 I readily believe—and many cases even show it—that great rulers can be found without the culture of the sciences, as King Ferdinand the Catholic was. But this only happens in minds awakened by long experience and so favored by nature with such a rich vein of judgment that the truth of things is immediately clear, without much need for speculation or study. Even so, study is always necessary for greater perfection; no matter how great a person's natural prudence, they need knowledge of things to know how to choose or reject them, as well as an understanding of past and present examples, which cannot be perfectly acquired without study.8 Therefore, the light and adornment of the arts are strictly necessary for a prince. As King Alfonso said, "Through a lack of knowing these things, he would necessarily have to rely on someone else who did."9 He might well experience what King Solomon warned of: that whoever puts their secret into another's power becomes that person's servant, while whoever knows how to keep it remains master of their own heart—a quality that greatly suits a king."10 The office of a king has a great need for a strong understanding enlightened by learning. Without a doubt, as King Don Alonso said in that same law, no one could carry out such a great task without good understanding and great wisdom; therefore, a king who scorns the arts of knowledge scorns God, from whom they all come.11 We have seen some sciences infused in many people, and the art of government only in Solomon.12 Agriculture provides reliable rules for cultivating fields, and there are rules for taming wild beasts as well; yet none are reliable enough for governing people, which requires a great deal of learning. Not without great ability, study, and experience can one take apart the diversity of minds and customs among subjects—something so necessary in anyone who rules.13 And so, wisdom suits no one more than the prince. It is what makes kingdoms happy and makes the prince respected and feared.14 So Solomon was, when his wisdom spread throughout the world.15 In princes, knowledge is feared more than power.
The Dangers of Extremes in Study
A prince must balance his education, avoiding both the ignorance that ruins a state and the excessive speculation that distracts from the duties of governance.
A wise prince is the security of his vassals. An ignorant one is their ruin. This shows how barbaric Emperor Licinius's judgment was when he called the sciences a public plague, and philosophers and orators the poisons of the commonwealth.16 No less barbarous was the Goths' rebuke of King Alaric's mother for teaching him good letters, saying she was making him unfit for political affairs. Aeneas Silvius looked at them in a different light when he said that for commoners they were silver, for nobles gold, and for princes precious stones.17 When King Alfonso of Naples was told that a certain king had said learning didn't suit princes, he replied, "That was more an ox's bellow than a man's word."18 For this reason, King Alfonso said, "A king must be eager to learn the arts and sciences, for through them he will understand the affairs of kings and know better how to act in them."19 Julius Caesar prided himself equally on arms and on letters. And so he had himself sculpted upon the Globe of the world with a sword in one hand and a book in the other, and this motto, Ex utroque Caesar, showing that with the sword and with letters he won and kept the empire.20 King Louis XI of France did not judge them so important, for he would not let his son Charles VIII study, because he had recognized in himself that learning made him stubborn and set in his own opinion, without taking counsel from others. But it did not turn out well for him, because King Charles was left unfit, and he let himself be governed by everyone, to the serious harm of his reputation and his kingdom. Extremes in this matter are harmful. Deep ignorance breeds contempt and ridicule and commits grotesque errors, and too much devotion to study seizes the mind and turns it away from government.21 Conversing with the Muses is very sweet and pleasant, and one leaves it reluctantly to attend to the heavy business of audiences and the nuisance of councils.22 King Alfonso the Wise worked out the motion of trepidation, and he could not manage the government of his kingdoms.2324 With his genius, he pierced the celestial spheres, yet he could keep neither the empire offered to him nor the crown he inherited. Kings who are highly learned gain a reputation among foreigners but lose it with their own subjects. To foreigners, their learning is a wonder; to their own people, it is a harm—confirming Thucydides' observation that rough, unpolished men are usually better at governing than those who are very sharp-witted.25 The sultan of Egypt, moved by King Don Alonso's fame, sent him ambassadors with great gifts, yet almost all the cities of Castile held him in little regard and refused to obey him. Minds deeply focused on scientific speculation are slow to act and timid in making decisions, because they find opposing reasons for everything, which blinds and confuses them. If the eye looks at things by the sun's reflected light, it sees them as they are. But if it tries to look straight into the sun's rays, the eyes are left so dazzled that they cannot make out their shapes. In the same way, minds much given to the brilliance of the sciences come out of them unfit to handle affairs.26 Natural judgment works more freely when it is unencumbered by the disputes and subtleties of the schools. King Solomon considers this pursuit a very bad thing, having tried it himself. Aristotle judged it harmful for princes to immerse themselves too deeply in the liberal arts, though he did allow them to get a taste of them.27 For that reason, it’s fitting that prudence should rein in the glory-hungry appetite for knowledge, which is usually fierce in great minds. Agricola’s mother did this by moderating his zeal for study when it exceeded what was appropriate for a Roman gentleman and senator; she knew how to keep a sense of measure in wisdom.28 People go to excess in their studies just as they do in their vices. Those mental excesses are often as much a disease as these physical ones.29 And so, for the prince a sketch of the sciences and arts is enough, along with a knowledge of their practical effects—and chiefly of those that serve the government of peace and of war—taking from them what is enough to enlighten his understanding and form his judgment, and leaving to those below him the glory of excelling further.30 Let him be content to fill his leisure with such a noble exercise, as Tacitus praises in Helvidius Priscus.31
The Proper Formation of a Ruler
A prince should be formed by practical men, grounded in the fear of God, and focused on history and eloquence rather than superstitious or speculative arts.
With this goal in mind, the most scholarly minds aren't the best teachers for princes—those who tend to be withdrawn from people, shy, indecisive, and unfit for public affairs—but rather those practical men who have knowledge and experience in worldly business and can teach the prince the arts of ruling alongside the sciences.32 The first thing a teacher must teach a prince is the fear of God, because it's the beginning of wisdom. Whoever is in God is at the source of the sciences.33 What looks like human knowledge is actually ignorance—the daughter of malice—through which princes and states are ruined.34 Eloquence is very necessary in a prince, since it is the only tyranny he can use to draw hearts gently to himself and make himself obeyed and respected.35 Recognizing this importance, Moses made his excuse to God that his tongue was slow and hindered when God sent him to Egypt to govern his people; God did not reject that excuse—rather, he assured him that he would attend his lips and teach him what he was to say. For this reason Solomon boasted that with his eloquence he would make himself revered by the powerful, and that they would listen to him with a finger to their lips.36 If even poor and bare eloquence is powerful enough to sweep the people away, what will it do when armed with power and clothed in purple? A prince who needs someone else to speak for him is more a statue of majesty than a prince. Nero was marked as the first who needed another man's eloquence.37 History is the teacher of true politics; it best teaches a prince how to reign because it contains the experience of all past governments, along with the prudence and judgment of those who came before. It's a counselor that stays with him at every hour. From jurisprudence, the prince should take only the part that pertains to government, reading the laws and constitutions of his states that deal with it—those established by reason of state and approved by long use.38 The prince should not meddle in the sciences of God, because in those areas knowledge and power are dangerous, as England learned with King James; it is enough for him to have a steady faith and, at his side, holy and learned men.39 Princes often lose themselves in judicial astrology, because the craving to know the future is strong in everyone—and stronger still in them, both because it would matter greatly to them and because they long to resemble God and make their power supernatural.40 And so they move on to other superstitious arts, hated by the people, until they come to believe that everything is worked by secondary causes.41 In doing so, they deny divine Providence and fall into omens and sorcery. And since they depend more on chance than on human prudence and diligence, they are slow to decide and act, and they consult the astrologers more than their counselors.42
Read the original Latin
Para mandar es menester sciencia; para obedecer basta una discreción natural y a veces la ignorancia sola. En la planta de un edificio trabaja el ingenio. En la fábrica, la mano. El mando es estudioso y perspicaz. La obediencia, casi siempre ruda y ciega. Por naturaleza manda el que tiene mayor inteligencia. El otro, por sucesión, por elección o por la fuerza, en que tiene más parte el caso que la razón. Y así, se deben contar las sciencias entre los instrumentos políticos de reinar, A Justiniano le pareció que no solamente con armas, sino también con leyes había de estar ilustrada la majestad imperial, para saberse gobernar en la guerra y en la paz.
Esto significa esta empresa en la pieza de artillería nivelada (para acertar mejor) con la escuadra, símbolo de las leyes y de la justicia (como diremos), porque con ésta se ha de ajustar la paz y la guerra, sin que la una ni la otra se aparten de lo justo, y ambas miren derechamente al blanco de la razón por medio de la prudencia y sabiduría. Por esto el rey don Alonso de Ñapóles y Aragón, preguntado que a quién debía más, a las armas o a las letras, respondió: «En los libros he aprendido las armas y los derechos de las armas.» Alguno podría entender este ornamento de las letras más en el cuerpo de la república, significado por la majestad, que en la persona del príncipe, cuya asistencia a los negocios no se puede divertir al estudio de las letras, y que bastará que atienda a favorecer y premiar los ingenios, para que en sus reinos florezcan las sciencias, como sucedió al mismo emperador Justiniano, que, aunque desnudo délias, hizo glorioso su gobierno con los varones doctos que tuvo cerca de sí. Bien creo, y aun lo muestran muchas experiencias, que pueden hallarse grandes gobernadores sin la cultura de las sciencias, como fue el rey don Fernando el Católico. Pero solamente sucede esto en aquellos ingenios despiertos con muchas experiencias, y tan favorecidos de la naturaleza de un rico mineral de juicio, que se les ofrece luego la verdad de las cosas, sin que haga mucha falta la especulación y el estudio, si bien éste siempre es necesario para mayor perfección; porque, aunque la prudencia natural sea grande, ha menester el conocimiento de las cosas para saber eligillas o reproballas, y también la observación de los exemplos pasados y presentes, lo cual no se adquiere perfectamente sin el estudio. Y así, es precisamente necesario en el príncipe el ornamento y luz de las artes: «Ca por la mengua de non saber estas cosas (dice el rey don Alonso), avria por fuerza a meter otro consigo que lo sopiese. E poderle ya avenir lo que dixo el rey Salomón, que el que mete su poridad en poder de otro, fázese su siervo, e quien la sabe guardar, es señor de su corazón, lo que conviene mucho al Rey.» Bien ha menester el oficio de un rey un entendimiento grande ilustrado de las letras.
«Ca sin duda (como en la misma ley dijo el rey don Alonso) tan gran fecho como éste non lo podría ningún home cumplir, a menos de buen entendimiento, y de gran sabiduría: onde el rey que despreciase de aprender los saberes, despreciaría a Dios, de quien vienen todos.» Algunas sciencias hemos visto infusas en muchos, y solamente en Salomón la política. Para la cultura de los campos da reglas ciertas la agricultura, y también las hay para domar las fieras; pero ningunas son bastantemente seguras para gobernar los hombres, en que es menester mucha sciencia. No sin gran caudal, estudio y experiencia se puede hacer anatomía de la diversidad de ingenios y costumbres de los subditos, tan necesaria en quien manda. Y así, a ninguno más que al príncipe conviene la sabiduría. Ella es la que hace felices los reinos, respetado y temido al príncipe. Entonces lo fue Salomón, cuando se divulgó ^a suya por el mundo. Más se teme en los príncipes el saber que el poder.
Un príncipe sabio es la seguridad de sus vasallos. Y un ignorante, la ruina. De donde se infiere cuan bárbara fue la sentencia del emperador Lucinio, que llamaba a las sciencias peste pública, y a los filósofos y oradores venenos de las repúblicas. No fue menos bárbaro la reprehensión de los godos a la madre del rey Alarico, porque le instruía en las buenas letras, diciendo que lo hacía inhábil para las materias políticas. A diferente luz las miraba Enea Silvio, cuando dijo que a los plebeyos eran plata, a los nobles oro y a los príncipes piedras preciosas. Refirieron al rey don Alfonso de Ñapóles haber dicho un rey que no estaban bien las letras a los príncipes y respondió: «Ésa más fue voz de buey que palabra de hombre.» Por esto dijo el rey don Alonso: «Acucioso debe el Rey ser en aprender los saberes; ca por ellos entenderá las cosas de reyes, y sabrá mejor obrar en ellas.» Igualmente se preciaba Julio César de las armas y de las letras.
Y así se hizo esculpir sobre el Globo del mundo con la espada en una mano y un libro en la otra, y este mote Ex utroque Caesar mostrando que con ]a espada y las letras adquirió y conservó el imperio. No las juzgó por tan importantes el rey de Francia Ludovico Undécimo, pues no permitió a su hijo Carlos Octavo que estudiase, porque había reconocido en sí mismo que la sciencia le hacía pertinaz y obstinado en su parecer, sin admitir el consejo de otros. Pero no le salió bien, porque quedó el rey Carlos incapaz, y se dejó gobernar de todos, con grave daño de su reputación y de su reino. Los extremos en esta materia son dañosos. La profunda ignorancia causa desprecio e irrisión y comete disformes errores, y la demasiada aplicación a los estudios arrebata los ánimos y los divierte del gobierno. Es la conversación de las musas muy dulce y apacible, y se deja mal por asistir a lo pesado de las audiencias y a lo molesto de los consejos. Ajustó el rey don Alonso el Sabio el movimiento de trepidación, y no pudo el gobierno de sus reinos." Penetró con su ingenio los orbes, y ni supo conservar el imperio ofrecido ni la corona heredada.
Los reyes muy scientíficos ganan reputación con los extraños y la pierden con sus vasallos. A aquellos es de admiración su sciencia, y a éstos de daño; verificándose en ellos aquella sentencia de Tucídides, que los rudos ordinariamente son mejores para gobernar que los muy agudos." El soldán de Egipto, movido de la fama del rey don Alonso, le envió embajadores con grandes presentes, y casi todas las ciudades de Castilla le tuvieron en poco y le negaron la obediencia. Los ingenios muy entregados a la especulación de las sciencias son tardos en obrar y tímidos en resolver, porque a todo hallan razones diferentes que los ciega y confunde. Si la vista mira las cosas a la reverberación del sol, las conoce cómo son. Pero si pretende mirar derechamente a sus rayos, quedan los ojos tan ofuscados, que no pueden distinguir sus formas. Así los ingenios muy dados al resplandor de las sciencias salen délias inhábiles para el manejo de los negocios. Más desembarazado obra un juicio natural, libre de las disputas y sutilezas de las escuelas.
El rey Salomón tiene por muy mala esta ocupación, habiéndola experimentado. Y Aristóteles juzgó por dañoso el entregarse demasiadamente los príncipes a algunas de las sciencias liberales, aunque les concede el llegar a gustallas. Por lo cual es muy conveniente que la prudencia detenga el apetito glorioso de saber, que en los grandes ingenios suele ser vehemente, como lo hacía la madre de Agrícola, moderando su ardor al estudio, mayor de lo que convenía a un caballero romano y a un senador, con que supo tener modo en la sabiduría. No menos se excede en los estudios que en los vicios. Tan enfermedad suelen ser aquéllos del ánimo, como éstos del cuerpo. Y así, basta en el príncipe un esbozo de las sciencias y artes y un conocimiento de sus efectos prácticos, y principalmente de aquellas que conducen al gobierno de la paz y de la guerra, tomando délias lo que baste a ilustralle el entendimiento y formalle el juicio, dejando a los inferiores la gloria de aventajarse. Conténtese con ocupar el ocio con tan noble exercicio, como en Elvidio Prisco lo alaba Tácito.
Supuesto este fin, no son mejores para maestros de los príncipes los ingenios más scientíficos, que. ordinariamente suelen ser retirados del trato de los hombres, encogidos, irresolutos e inhábiles para los negocios, sino aquellos prácticos que tienen conocimiento y experiencia de las cosas del mundo, y pueden enseñar al príncipe las artes de reinar, juntamente con las sciencias.
Lo primero que ha de enseñar el maestro al príncipe es el temor de Dios, porque es principio de la sabiduría. Quien está en Dios, está en la fuente de las sciencias. Lo que parece saber humano, es ignorancia, hija de la malicia, por quien se pierden los príncipes y los Estados.
La elocuencia es muy necesaria en el príncipe, siendo sola la tiranía que puede usar para atraer a sí dulcemente los ánimos y hacerse obedecer y respetar. Reconociendo esta importancia Moisés, se excusaba con Dios de que era tarda e impedida su lengua, cuando le envió a Egipto a gobernar su pueblo; cuya excusa no reprobó Dios, antes le aseguró que asistiría a sus labios y le enseñaría lo que había de hablar. Por esto Salomón se alababa de que con su elocuencia se haría reverenciar de los poderosos y que le oyesen con el dedo en la boca. Si aun pobre y desnuda la elocuencia es poderosa a arrebatar el pueblo, ¿qué hará armada del poder y vestida de la púrpura? Un príncipe que ha menester que otro hable por él, más es estatua de la majestad que príncipe. Nerón fue notado de ser el primero que necesitase de la facundia ajena.
La historia es maestra de la verdadera política, y quien mejor enseñará a reinar al príncipe, porque en ella está presente la experiencia de todos los gobiernos pasados y la prudencia y juicio de los que fueron. Consejero es que a todas horas está con él. De la jurisprudencia tome el príncipe aquella parte que pertenece al gobierno, leyendo las leyes y constituciones de sus Estados que tratan de él, las cuales halló la razón de Estado y aprobó el largo uso. En las sciencias de Dios no se entremeta el príncipe, porque en ellas es peligroso el saber y el poder, como lo experimentó Inglaterra en el rey Jacobo, y basta que tenga una fe constante y a su lado varones santos y doctos.
En la astrologia judiciaria se suelen perder los príncipes, porque el apetito de saber lo futuro es vehemente en todos, y en ellos más, porque les importaría mucho, y porque anhelan por parecerse a Dios y hacer sobrenatural su poder. Y así, pasan a otras artes supersticiosas y aborrecidas del pueblo, llegando a creer que todo se obra por las causas segundas. Con que niegan la Providencia divina, dando en agüeros y sortilegios. Y como dependen más del caso que de la prudencia e industria humana, son remisos en resolver y obrar, y se consultan más con los astrólogos que con sus consejeros.
Notes
- 1 ↩planta is the architectural plan/blueprint, not a plant; ingenio is the designing mind/ingenuity.
- 2 ↩fábrica means the building/construction process, not a modern factory; elliptical parallel to s2.
- 3 ↩caso here is chance/fortune (not a legal case), set against razón (reason).
- 4 ↩Source has a comma before capitalized A Justiniano (reinar, A Justiniano), almost certainly a missing sentence boundary; rendered as two English sentences without inventing sense.
- 5 ↩empresa = emblem/device in Saavedra's Empresas series; escuadra = carpenter's/set square, both the justice-and-law symbol and the aiming aid for the leveled gun; ésta taken as justice (via the square).
- 6 ↩Source 'Ñapóles' read as Nápoles (Naples); Alfonso V of Aragon, also king of Naples.
- 7 ↩letras rendered as learning/letters (humanist culture); sciencias as sciences; délias = de ellas (of those letters/sciences).
- 8 ↩eligillas/reproballas treated as elegirlas/reprobarlas (choose them / reject them); mineral de juicio as a rich natural vein of judgment.
- 9 ↩Quoted medieval Castilian from King Alfonso (Siete Partidas tradition). Ca = for/because; mengua = lack; avria = habría; sopiese = supiese. The quote continues in s7.
- 10 ↩poridad = secret / confidential counsel (medieval Castilian). fázese = hácese. Continues and closes the Alfonso quotation begun in s6.
- 11 ↩Quoted Old Spanish from Alfonso’s law code (ca, fecho, home, onde, saberes). Rendered in readable contemporary English while keeping the legal-proverbial force; 'saberes' as arts of knowledge / learning.
- 12 ↩'política' here is the art of statecraft/government, not 'politics' in the modern partisan sense.
- 13 ↩'caudal' here means stock of capacity/endowment (intellectual capital), not a river’s flow; 'anatomía' is figurative dissection/analysis.
- 14 ↩'Ella' refers to sabiduría (wisdom) from the previous sentence; kept as 'She' to preserve the personified force common in this tradition.
- 15 ↩Source reads 'se divulgó ^a suya'; most plausible intended reading is 'se divulgó la suya' ('his [wisdom] spread'). Translated on that corrected reading; 'lo fue' continues 'respetado y temido' from s6.
- 16 ↩Source 'Lucinio' is rendered as Licinius (the Roman emperor commonly meant by this name in early modern political literature).
- 17 ↩'las' points back to the sciences/letters of the preceding sentences; Enea Silvio = Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini.
- 18 ↩Source 'Ñapóles' corrected to Naples (Nápoles).
- 19 ↩Medieval/early modern 'ca' rendered as causal 'for'; 'acucioso' as 'eager' (diligent, zealous).
- 20 ↩Normalized reading takes source «]a espada» as OCR/print corruption of «la espada».
- 21 ↩«divierte» here is classical Spanish for divert/distract (from gobierno), not modern «amuse».
- 22 ↩«se deja mal» rendered as reluctance to leave; sense is that literary company is hard to abandon for public duty.
- 23 ↩«movimiento de trepidación» is the medieval astronomical trepidation of the sphere/equinoxes in the Alfonsine tradition, not emotional trembling.
- 24 ↩Trailing stray quotation mark in source after «reinos» ignored as print noise.
- 25 ↩"rudos" rendered as "rough, unpolished men" (simple/unsubtle rather than crude); "muy agudos" as "very sharp-witted," contrasting practical bluntness with over-cleverness.
- 26 ↩Source "délias" read as period orthography for "de ellas" ("from them").
- 27 ↩gustallas = gustarlas (period Spanish). Rendered as 'tasting them' for a light, limited acquaintance rather than mastery.
- 28 ↩apetito glorioso de saber: appetite for knowing that seeks glory/renown, not merely 'glorious' in a complimentary sense. Rendered as 'glory-hungry appetite to know'.
- 29 ↩aquéllos... éstos: deictic pair pointing back to studies (ánimo) and vices (cuerpo). ánimo rendered as 'mind' for intellectual overdrive, not 'soul' in the theological sense of anima.
- 30 ↩délias = de ellas; ilustralle/formalle = ilustrarle/formarle (period clitic spelling). Translated from the intended normalized reading.
- 31 ↩Elvidio Prisco = Helvidius Priscus (Tacitus). Conténtese is a third-person polite imperative addressed to the prince.
- 32 ↩negocios rendered as 'public affairs' / 'the world's business' (Golden Age sense: affairs of state), not commercial trade alone.
- 33 ↩Early modern Spanish 'sciencias' covers the branches of learning and knowledge, not only the natural sciences in the modern sense.
- 34 ↩'Malicia' here is moral wickedness, not mere mischief; the personified ignorance born of it is what ruins rulers and polities.
- 35 ↩"tiranía" is deliberate paradox: persuasion as the sole soft coercion a prince may use, not literal despotic violence.
- 36 ↩"con el dedo en la boca" is kept as a concrete image of attentive silence; it echoes Wisdom 8:12 rather than a modern idiom.
- 37 ↩"notado de" can mean either historically noted or morally censured; the rendering keeps the critical force without over-specifying blame.
- 38 ↩«razón de Estado» rendered as the established political term «reason of state», not as mere «reasons of the state» or «statecraft» alone.
- 39 ↩«sciencias de Dios» kept as «sciences of God» (theology and sacred learning); archaic spelling «sciencias» normalized in sense only.
- 40 ↩astrologia judiciaria: historical technical term for astrology that claims to judge human affairs and fate (as opposed to natural/astronomical study of the heavens).
- 41 ↩causas segundas: scholastic 'secondary causes'—created agents/instruments acting under, not instead of, God's first causality.
- 42 ↩caso here means chance/fortune (not 'case' in the modern English sense).
Idea de un príncipe político-cristiano representada en cien empresas (Empresas políticas) companion
Rule yourself daily, not just on retreat
Chosen Portion turns the mirror into a daily practice — a short reading and examining question each morning before you lead anyone.
Chosen Portion makes the mirror daily: the ruler-formation questions this collection preserves become a two-minute morning examination in the app.
- A daily formation reading drawn from centuries of counsel to those in authority
- One pointed examination question a day — two minutes, before the meetings start
- Track your practice over weeks and watch the examined life become a habit