De lonico genere philosophorum, et auctoritate
The Ionian Lineage and the Turn to Ethics
The chapter introduces the Ionian philosophers, culminating in Socrates' pivotal shift from natural science to the formation of character.
Regarding Socrates, the teachings of Plato, and his reputation after death. There is another school of philosophers called the Ionian, which originated with the more distant Greeks; the leader of this group was Thales of Miletus, one of the seven who were called the wise men. Once he had investigated the nature of things and stood out among the rest, he became especially remarkable because he mastered the calculations of astrology and predicted eclipses of the sun and moon. He was succeeded by his student Anaximander, who left behind Anaximenes as his disciple and successor. Diogenes was also his student, as was Anaxagoras, who taught that a divine mind is the creator of all the things we see. He was succeeded by his student Archelaus, whose disciple is said to have been Socrates, the teacher of Plato—who, according to Apuleius, was first called Aristocles, but later 'Plato' because of the breadth of his chest. He was raised to such eminence in philosophy through the vigor of his intellect, the exercise of his study, the charm of his character, and the grace and abundance of his eloquence, that, sitting as if on the throne of wisdom, he seemed to command philosophers both before and after him with a certain authority. It is recorded that Socrates was the first to turn all of philosophy toward the correction and formation of character, whereas before him everyone had devoted their greatest effort to investigating physics—that is, natural things. This was done rightly and wisely, since all things ought to be turned toward one's own benefit, and it's of little use to know the works of God—which are all very good and consequently similar to their Creator—unless one makes it their primary concern not to be evil themselves.
The Life and Stature of Plato
A biographical overview of Plato, detailing his upbringing, diverse studies, and his synthesis of active and contemplative life.
Because of the remarkable fame of Socrates' life and death, he left behind many followers of his philosophy, who divided his teachings into various schools, about which a few things will be said in what follows. Furthermore, Plato used the authority for which he was preeminent to restrain the disagreement of such a great multitude, and he drew and held the attention of everyone to himself for a long time. There are those who believe that Plato was not the son of Ariston, but was born of a more noble conception, because the form of Apollo had mingled with his mother, Perictione, who is known to have traced her origin back to Solon, the wisest founder of the Attic laws. He was born, however, in the month called Thargelion among the Athenians, on the day when Latona is believed to have given birth to Apollo and Diana at Delos; they say that Socrates was born on the day before. Born to such parents, he didn't just surpass the virtues of heroes; he was said to have equaled the powers of the gods. For Speusippus, instructed by family records, praises both the boy's keen intellect in learning and his character of admirable modesty, and he reports that his early efforts were imbued with the labor and love of study, and he testifies that the growth of these virtues came together in the man. Glaucus and Adeimantus were his brothers, born of the same parents. He had Dionysius as his teacher for basic literacy and Ariston of Argos for wrestling; his training was so effective that he won wrestling matches at the Pythian games. He didn't despise the art of painting, and he also made himself useful in tragedies and dithyrambs. He was so puffed up by his confidence in his poems that he wanted to set himself up as a competitor, had Socrates not driven the humility of this desire from his soul and taken care to instill in him the glory of true praise. Before this, he had been steeped in the school of Heraclides; but once he committed himself to Socrates, he not only surpassed the other Socratics in talent and learning, but he also illuminated wisdom through his hard work and elegance, adding great dignity to it through his precise assertion of the senses and the majesty of his words. As Socrates was passing away, he turned to the discipline of Pythagoras; although he saw it was built upon diligent and magnificent reasoning, he still desired to imitate its restraint and purity more. Next, he approached Theodorus of Cyrene to learn geometry. From there he sought out Egypt to devote himself to astrology, where many believed he learned the oracles of the prophets. He then returned to Italy and followed Archytas the Pythagorean of Tarentum; he would have set his mind toward the Indians, Medes, and Magi, had the Caletic wars not prevented him from proceeding. Therefore, having more diligently examined the discoveries of Parmenides and Zeno—which were admired by the great philosophers—he collected them all in his own books, becoming the first to teach that the studies of philosophy are not only not contrary to one another, but are mutually necessary, because all things consist through mutual assistance. Many of his students, both men and women, flourished in philosophy. He left behind an inheritance consisting of a small garden attached to the Academy, two servants, and a bowl he used for offering sacrifices to the gods. He possessed only as much gold as a boy would wear in his ear as a mark of nobility. Critics have various opinions about his three trips to Sicily. But he went there first to observe the natural history of Mount Etna and to understand the reason for its eruptions; the second time, at the request of Dionysius, to assist the Syracusans and to learn the local laws of that province; and the third time, having obtained permission from Dionysius, to restore the exiled Dion to his homeland. Yet in all these things he was so diligent that he was never distracted from his studies or the duties of philosophy. Therefore, since the study of philosophy involves both action and contemplation, Socrates practiced the active life, establishing morals by which life is faithfully directed toward happiness; Pythagoras insisted on the contemplative life, through which the mind is exercised and knowledge is spread; and Plato is praised for having perfected philosophy by joining both together, dividing it into three parts—ethics, physics, and logic, that is, moral, natural, and rational—by which truth is distinguished from falsehood and without which one cannot discuss matters that involve either action or contemplation. Some believe that during his travels he saw and heard the prophet Jeremiah in Egypt and read the prophetic scriptures.
Platonic Wisdom and Divine Truth
An examination of the parallels between Platonic thought and Christian revelation, noting both the brilliance of his insights and the limitations of pagan philosophy.
However, a careful calculation of the timeline, as found in historical chronicles, shows they were by no means contemporaries. Plato’s birth barely reached that era, and Jeremiah’s prophecy occurred a hundred years later. Furthermore, the prophetic scriptures didn't reach Egypt until about sixty years after Plato’s death, during the reign of Ptolemy, who loved literature and summoned the seventy translators from Jerusalem. Yet that opinion has prevailed because many things in Plato’s books align with the sayings of the prophets. In the Timaeus, while investigating the causes of the world quite subtly, he seems to express the Trinity that is God. He establishes the efficient cause in the power of God, the formal cause in wisdom, and the final cause in goodness—which alone moved Him to make every creature a participant in His goodness, as far as the nature of each is capable of receiving beatitude. In these things, he seems to have understood and taught one substance, while asserting that the Maker and former of the universe, God, is one. He called Him the Father of all because of the mark of His goodness and sweet affection, and he said that because of the infinity of His majesty, power, wisdom, and goodness, He is as difficult to find as He is impossible to describe worthily once found. He also seems to argue that He is the rewarder of those who hope in Him and worship Him, saying that the philosopher who approaches wisdom with heart and vow is a wise worshiper of God and a lover of God. Just as He is the admirable cause of the established universe, He is the same unfailing and singular fountain of the happiness that is to be drunk. Moses is the authority that in the beginning God created heaven and earth, and placed water and air in their midst. Plato, however, says that from the beginning, the world—which is solid and visible to man—is clearly not a state that should be expressed by a substantive verb, but a transition from the womb to the grave, and, as it were, a flight or shadow of existence. Plato indeed says that only that which is always the same and not varied by motions is truly proper to Him. But things subject to motion don't truly exist; they only seem to exist. They don't remain, but constantly vanish and flee, and don't deserve the name. Furthermore, there are many things common to the Platonists and to us, so they are entirely without excuse while they hold the truth of God in a lie. The great father Augustine is the authority (if I recall correctly what I read written under his name) that in the books of the Platonists, it was discovered that which the blessed evangelist John thundered more deeply than the heavens, and more than the human mind can grasp, though the ear may somehow be able to hear it; it was discovered, I say, what he says at the beginning of the Gospel: In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God, and the rest up to the place where he says: And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not comprehend it. I, for one, would never have believed it was granted to any of the unbelievers to open their mouth to an oracle of such light, which the worldly eye is not sufficient to behold, were it not read in the writings of the fathers. Yet the Apostolic authority also asserts the privilege of intimate familiarity, which the word of faith illuminated by the perseverance of good work, since the philosophers vanished not only in their thoughts but in their deeds. He wrote many books, and contemplation didn't suppress the merits of the political man, nor did the necessity of action extinguish the sharpness of his contemplation. If the book that is about his dogma is despised, Origen, Jerome, and Augustine, relying on the testimonies of all the philosophers, are sufficient for his praise. Different people have written different things about his death, but it's more probable that he, who had lived temperately and had followed the precepts of philosophy to the best of his ability, didn't yield his life to mockery. For the story that some people pass down about him—that he gave up the ghost moved by shame because he couldn't solve a riddle proposed by sailors—is clearly a fabrication born of a confusion of names.
The Legacy of a Philosopher
A concluding reflection on the historical confusion surrounding Plato's death and his enduring status as a figure of near-divine reverence.
Whatever the Greek fables say about him, Valerius Maximus attributes it to Homer, not Plato. From this, however, it also became common knowledge that there were those who called Homer the 'Plato of equivocation' because of his excellence in wisdom, the elegance of his speech, and the breadth of his heart; for it's certain that noble men have been known by many names. He died at the age of eighty-one, held in such universal reverence and integrity of authority that for a long time it was debated whether he should be ranked among the gods or the demigods. But as that age faded, the merits of his virtues began to seem so incredible that they leaned toward the fables of antiquity; Labeo writes that he is to be venerated among the demigods, so that he might be taught to have been something greater than a man, yet less than a god.
Read the original Latin
Socratisy et dogmate Platonis, et opinione eius post Tnortem. Alterum uero philosophorum genus est quod lonicum dicitur et a Grecis ulterioribus traxit originem, Horum princeps fuit Tales Milesius, unus illorum septem qui dicti sunt sapientes. Iste, cum rerum naturam scrutatus inter ceteros emicuisset, maxime admirabilis extitit quod astrologiae numeris comprehensis solis et lunae defectus praedicebat. Huic successit Anaximander eius auditor, qui Anaximenem discipulum reliquit et successorem. Diogenes quoque eiusdem auditor extitit, et Anaxagoras qui omnium rerum quas uidemus efFectorem diuinum animum docuit. Ei successit auditor eius Archelaus, cuius discipulus Socrates fuisse perhibetur, magister Platonis, qui teste Apuleio prius a Aristotiles dictus est sed deinde a latitudine pectoris Plato, et in tantam eminentiam philosophiae et uigore ingenii et studii exercitio et omni morum uenustate eloquii quoque suauitate et copia subuectus est ut quasi in trono sapientiae residens praecepta quadam auctoritate uisus sit tam antecessoribus quam successoribus philosophis imperare. Et primus quidem Socrates uniuersam philosophiam ad corrigendos componendosque mores flexisse memoratur, cum ante illum omnes phisicis, id est rebus naturalibus, perscrutandis maximam operam dederint. Probe quidem et sapienter, cum ad utilitatem suam oporteat omnia retorqueri parumque prosit nouisse opera Dei, quae sunt oinnia ualde bona et Creatori suo consequenter similia, nisi quis id praecipue agat ne ipse sit malus.
Praeclara igitur uitae mortisque fama Socratis philosophiae suae reliquit plurimos sectatores qui partiti sunt uerba eius in uarias sectas de quibus in sequentibus pauca dicentur. Porro tantae multitudinis dissidentiam Plato qua praeminebat auctoritate cohibuit et in se attentionem omnium diutius prouocauit et tenuit. Sunt qui Platonem credant non Aristonis filium • sed augustiore conceptu natum eo quod Apollinis figuratio matri eius Perictioni se miscuerit, quam constat a Solone sapientissimo fundatore legum Atticarum traxisse originem. Natus est autem mense qui apud Atticos Targelion dicitur, die qua apud Delon Latona peperisse creditur Apollinem et Dianam; pridie quidem Socratem genitum ferunt. Talis ergo et de talibus oriundus non solum heroum uirtutibus praestitit sed aequiparasse dictus est deorum potestates. Nam Speusippus, domesticis documentis instructus, et pueri eius acre in percipiendo ingenium et admirandae uerecundiae indolem laudat et pubescentes primitias labore atque amore studendi imbutas refert et in uiro harum incrementa uirtutum conuenisse testatur. Ex hisdem genitoribus Glaucus et Adamantus ei fratres fuerunt. Doctores habuit in prima litteratura Dionisium, in palaestra Aristonem Argis oriundum; tantosque progressus ei exercitatio contulit ut Phitiae luctando certamina uicerit.
Picturae non aspernatus artem, tragedis quoque et ditiriambis se utilem finxit. lamque carminum confidentia elatus certatorem se profiteri cupiebat, nisi Socrates humilitatem huius cupidinis ab eius animo expulisset et uerae laudis gloriam ei curasset ingerere. Et antea quidem Heraclidis secta fuerat imbutus; uerum, cum se Socrati dedisset, non solum ingenio atque doctrina ceteros Socraticos uicit sed etiam labore et elegantia sapientiam elustrauit eique recta assertione sensuum et maiestate uerborum plurimum adhibuit dignitatis. Socrate siquidem excedente se ad Pithagorae contulit disciplinam; quam etsi ratione diligenti et magnifica uidebat instructam, rerum tamen a continentiam et eastitatem magis cupiebat imitari. Deinde Theodorum Cirenensem adiit ut geometriam disceret. Inde Egiptum petiit ut astrologiae uacaret, ibique a plerisque creditus est didicisse oracula prophetarum. Vnde rursus in Ithaliam rediit et Pithagoreum Tarentinum Architam secutus est; atque ad Indos, Medos, Magos animum intendisset, nisi eum procedere uetuissent bella Caletica. Quapropter inuenta Parmenidae et Zenonis diligentius executus, quae apud magnos philosophos admirationi fuerant singula, in libris suis collegit uniuersa, docens primus studia philosophiae non modo non esse contraria sed inuicem necessaria sibi, eo quod mutuis auxiliis uniuersa consistunt.
Multi auditorum eius utriusque sexus in philosophia floruerunt. Patrimonium in ortulo, qui Achademiae iunctus erat, in duobus ministris et patera, qua diis supplicabat, reliquit. Auri tantum habuit quantum puer auricula gestauerat in nobilitatis insigne. Tres aduentus eius ad Siciliam mali diuersis opinionibus carpunt. Sed primo ut historiam naturae cemeret in Ethna et incendiorum intelligeret rationem, illuc profectus est; secundo petitu Dionisii ut Siracusanis adsisteret et ut municipales prouinciae illius disceret leges; tertio ut fugientem Dionem restitueret patriae suae uenia a Dionisio impetrata. Sed in his omnibus adeo diligens extitit ut a studiis aut officiis philosophiae nullo umquam tempore suspenderetur. Itaque, cum studium philosophiae partim in actione, partim in contemplatione uersetur, Socrates actiuam exercuit, mores instituens quibus fideliter ad beatitudinem uita transigitur; Pithagoras contemplatiuae institit per quam ingenium exercetur et propagatur scientia; proinde Plato utramque iungendo alteri philosophiam perfecisse laudatur, quam in tres partes distribuit, ethicam, phisicam, et logicam, id est moralem naturalem et rationalem, qua uerum disterminatur a falso et sine qua disseri nequeunt quae uel in actione uel in contemplatione uersantur. Putatur a nonnullis quod in peregrinatione sua Hieremiam prophetam uiderit audieritque in Egipto et legerit scripturas propheticas.
Sed subputata ratio temporum, quae in cronicis continentur historiis, docet eos nequaquam contemporaneos extitisse, cum ortus Platonis uix etatem illam apprehenderit et interlabentibus centum annis tempus, quo prophetauit leremias, attigerit; et scripturae propheticae post mortem Platonis annis ferme sexaginta regnante Tholomeo, qui litterarum studiosus a lerosolimis septuaginta adsciuit interpretes, Egiptum intrauerint. Opinio tamen illa conualuit quia in libris Platonis inueniuntur multa dictis consona prophetarum. Nam in Thimeo, dum causas mundi subtilius inuestigat, manif este uidetur exprimere Trinitatem quae Deus est, efficientem causam constituens in potentia Dei, in sapientia formalem, finalem in bonitate quae sola induxit eum ut omnem creaturam bonitatis suae participem a faceret, prout natura cuiusque capax beatitudinis esse potest. Vnam tamen in his uisus est intellexisse et docuisse substantiam, dum opificem uniuersitatis et formatorem Deum unum esse asseruit, quem ob insigne bonitatis et dulcis affectus dixit omnium genitorem, quem propter infinitatem maiestatis, potentiae, sapientiae et bonitatis suae tam est inuenire difficile quam inuentum digne profari impossibile. Eundem quoque remuneratorem sperantium in se esse et colentium se uidetur adstruere, dicens sapientem esse cultorem Dei philosophum qui animo et uoto accedit ad sapientiam, et eum esse amatorem Dei; qui, sicut constitutae uniuersitatis causa est admirabilis, ita bibendae felicitatis idem est fons indeficiens et singularis. Moyses auctor est quia in principio creauit Deus celum et terram et in medio eorum aquam coUocauit et aerem; Plato quod ab initio, ut mundus, qui solidus et uisibiHs homine quidem planum est quia uita eius non status est qui uerbo substantiuo debeat exprimi sed transitus de utero ad tumulum et quasi fuga aut umbra existendi. Plato quidem id quoque solum proprium dicit esse quod semper est idem nec motibus uariatur. Quae uero sunt obnoxia motui non quidem sunt sed uidentur esse, et nequaquam manent sed iugiter euanescunt et fugiunt nec spectant appellationem.
Sunt praeterea Piatonicis et nostris multa communia, ut sint omnino inexcusabiles dum ueritatem Dei in mendacio detinent. Magnus pater Augustinus auctor est (si tamen quae sub nomine eius concepta legi recolo fideliter) quod in libris Platonicorum inuentum sit quod beatus euangelista lohannes altius celo intonuit et quam humana mens percipere queat, licet auris utcumque possit audire; inuentum est, inquam, quod ait ab initio Euangelii: In principio erat Verbum et Verbum erat apud Deum et Deus erat Verbum, et cetera usque ad locum quo ait: Et lux in tenebris lucet et tenebrae eam non comprehenderunt. Ego quidem, nisi in patrum scriptis legeretur, nequaquam alicui infidelium concessum crederem ut os in tantae lucis oraculum aperiret quam oculus mundanus non sufficit intueri. Apostolicum tamen et a familiaritatis intimae priuilegium adstruit quod uerbum fidei boni operis perseuerantia illustrauit, cum philosophi euanuerint non modo in cogitationibus sed operibus suis. Scripsit libros plurimos, et politici hominis merita contemplatio non repressit, et contemplationis acumen actionis necessitas non extinxit. Si Hber qui de Dogmate eius est contempnitur, in laudem eius Origenes, leronimus, Augustinus, omnium philosophorum adtestationibus freti, sufficiunt. De morte eius diuersi diuersa scripserunt sed probabilius est eum, qui imioeenter uixerat et philosophiae praecepta pro uiribus fuerat inseeutus, uitam risui non cessisse. Nam quod de eo nonnuUi tradunt quia uerecundia motus emisit spiritum eo quod nautarum propositam non potuit soluere quaestionem, constat nominis errore compositum.
Quicquid enim de eo Grecorum loquentur fabulae, hoc de Homero non Platone Valerius Maximus ref ert. Ex eo tamen et hoc uulgatum est, quia fuerunt qui Homerum aequiuocum Platonis dicerent propter excellentiam sapientiae, sermonis elegantiam et latitudinem pectoris; nam uiros nobiles certum est polinomios extitisse. Decessit autem octoginta annis et uno expletis in tanta reuerentia omnium et integritate auctoritatis ut diu dubitatum fuerit diis an semidiis potius aggregandus. Sed et cum etate illa deficiente raerita uirtutum eius tamquam incredibilia quodammodo ad antiquitatis fabulas uergerent, ipsum inter semideos uenerandum Labeo scribit ut quiddam maius homine, minus deo fuisse doceatur.
Policraticus companion
Study the argument weekly; pray the tradition daily
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