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Chapter 25Erud.1.25

De puerorum cohercione.

The Twofold Aim of Discipline

Education restrains children from evil and forms them for good, both of which belong to discipline.

Now, the education of children consists in two things, namely: that they be restrained from evil and formed for good, and that both of these aims belong to discipline. For the word 'discipline' itself also refers to restraint, which is exercised for the sake of correction, and to the correction that follows upon restraint.

The Teacher's Reputation and Plutarch's Example

A teacher's honor depends on his students' progress, as shown by Plutarch's letter praising Trajan's humility and virtue.

And great confusion and disgrace are brought upon a teacher or tutor if his instruction or teaching makes no headway with his pupils, especially the most noble ones. Thus Plutarch, the philosopher who was the tutor or instructor of the emperor Trajan, wrote an elegant little book for that same Trajan, whose title is 'The Education of Trajan,' and it begins in this way: 'Plutarch,' he says, 'sends greetings to Trajan.' I have long known that your modesty did not seek after power — power which you have nevertheless always worn as one deserving, by the elegance of your character. By that very measure you are judged all the more worthy, by how much more you appear to be removed from the charge of ambition. And so I congratulate both my fortune and yours — on your virtue, that is — provided, however, that you have governed well, which you have thoroughly deserved.

The Blame That Falls on Teachers

Teachers are blamed for their students' faults, as seen in the cases of Seneca, Quintilian, and Socrates, so the teacher must first live rightly.

Beyond that, I have no doubt that both you and I will be exposed to the dangers of malicious tongues, since Rome does not tolerate the weakness of its emperors, and public talk tends to lay the faults of the students at the teachers' door. So it is that Seneca, tutor of his Nero, is justly torn apart by the tongues of detractors: the recklessness of his young men is laid at Quintilian's door, and Socrates is accused of having been too gentle with his own pupil. But you will conduct yourself most rightly if you do not fall short of your own standard. If you first get yourself in order. . . toward virtue. .

Plutarch's Witness and the Need for Correction

Plutarch testifies that obedience to his teaching leads to good rule, while Augustine and Genesis show that discipline is needed because the human heart is prone to evil from youth.

. Everything will proceed correctly. I have fashioned for you greater powers of political constitution, and if you obey them, you have Plutarch as your guide for living. Otherwise, I call this present letter as witness that you are not proceeding toward the destruction of the empire with Plutarch as your authority. These are Plutarch's words. The instruments of correction are reproofs, threats, rods, ferules, and things of this kind, by which, as was said above according to Augustine, both inexperience is overcome and perverse desire is weakened or restrained. For we read in Genesis 9 that the sense and thought of the human heart are prone to evil from youth.✦ On this account it is necessary to anticipate the execution of malice in boys and to meet it with discipline and to resist it, and to do this in diverse ways according to the disposition or aptitude of each one.

Natural Aptitude and the Variety of Temperaments

Some children learn readily by nature, while others show early vigor that promises much, requiring different approaches from the start.

For some boys are by nature quick and receptive to learning, so that there's no need to drag them along by force or compel them — you only need to lead them. As Ovid says in his book on the art of love — A natural gift from heaven rises more swiftly than the years of its possessor. Varro, the philosopher, says to his Athenian reader about something like this: 'Just as childishness is laughable in an old man, so steadfastness of fine character is cause for wonder in a boy.' And from this, Statius in the seventh book of the Thebaid: Too soon in life, strength and tender vigor promise immense years.

Bridling the Unruly Will

Unruly children must be restrained by discipline like untamed colts, and even when progress seems slow, one must not stop, for a hard beginning promises better things.

But others are unruly and perverse by nature—either from a corrupted nature or from a bad upbringing—and for that reason they resist discipline and are unfit, like untamed colts. So they must be restrained with the bridle of discipline and trained to good habits even against their will, following that line of Ovid in his book of letters: Just as early yoking harms young, tender bulls, and a horse pulled from the herd can barely handle the bridle — so an unformed heart takes to its first habits of conduct only barely and badly.12 And don't stop educating them for that reason, even though at the start there may not seem to be much progress, because, as Ovid himself bears witness in the seventh book of the Metamorphoses: A tearful beginning will be followed by a better fortune.

The Steep Path to Virtue

Seneca and Quintilian acknowledge that the beginning of virtue is painful, but once learning takes hold, what was hard becomes easy.

As Seneca says in his letter to Lucilius: 'The beginning of the journey toward virtue is steep, because at first it is weak and scarcely of sound mind when it comes to fearing the untried.'34 So a child must be compelled to begin; afterward the medicine is not harsh, for it brings delight at once as it heals.56 So far Seneca. And Quintilian, in his Causes, section fourteen: 'It is not without some sting that a person recoils from those things that once held the mind through pleasure.'789 But as Terence says:' When you begin and while you're still in the dark, things feel heavy — but once you've learned your way, they'll be easy.

Scripture and the Patience of Practice

Solomon commands instruction without despair, and classical and scriptural authorities agree that steady practice conquers all difficulty and habit makes the burdensome bearable.

So Solomon says in Proverbs 19: 'Instruct your son, and do not despair.'✦ …so that he may be instructed in the way of faith and morals. And so that educational discipline may not be too severe but moderate, he adds: 'But not to the point of killing him.'✦ —whether spiritual or bodily—'do not lay your hand (upon him).'✦ Finally, as Julius Celsus says, 'Practice is the master of all things.' Whence Cicero, in his speech on behalf of Cornelius Balbus, says: 'Constant practice, devoted to one thing, often conquers both talent and skill.' Therefore, as Sallust says in the Jugurtha, 'There are many things which, although they are grievous in themselves, are nevertheless held as nothing through custom.' Hence too Ovid, in the book 'Ars Amatoria': With time, even stubborn young oxen learn to take to the plows. With time, horses are taught to bear the gentle bridle; the iron ring is worn away by constant use, and the curved plowshare bites into the soil through steady practice. The same in book two: Nothing is greater than habit. What you bear badly now — get used to it, and you'll bear it well.

The Yoke That Becomes Light

Saint Bernard echoes Christ's promise that His yoke becomes delightful, and the Apostle compares the child to a slave under guardians, as Ecclesiasticus and the parable of the prodigal son warn against premature freedom.

This agrees with what Saint Bernard wrote to Pope Eugene: 'The Lord's yoke, to be sure, seems unbearable at first; but once you grow used to it, it isn't nearly so heavy; later it becomes light, and in the end it's a delight.'✦ So the Apostle speaks about the subjection and discipline of children, in Galatians chapter four: 'As long as the heir is a child,' he says, 'he's no different from a slave, even though he's master of everything — but he's under guardians and authorities until the time set by his father.'✦ He's no different from a slave, I say, as far as subjection and discipline are concerned — which is what Ecclesiasticus chapter thirty-three says: 'Food, a stick, and a load for the donkey; bread, discipline, and work for the slave.' He has no authority over his father's estate, even though he's destined to be master of everything. That's why it says in the same book, chapter thirty, speaking to a father about his son: 'Don't give him authority over —' — himself or his own affairs in his youth, lest — — he'll abuse it through reckless extravagance, like the prodigal son who said to his father, as we read in Luke chapter fifteen: 'Father, give me the share of the estate that's coming to me.'✦ And once he'd received his share, he squandered his wealth by living recklessly.✦

The Rod, the Threat, and the Timid Heart

Gregory, Proverbs, and Ecclesiasticus counsel correction without cruelty, noting that a threat often suffices, especially for timid natures, as Virgil warns of hidden dangers.

And Gregory makes this point: "We take a single coin away from a boy, yet we reserve the entire inheritance for him." Rightly, the same passage in Ecclesiasticus then adds this: "Do not look down on his reflections" — meaning, don't neglect correcting him when his wrong thinking shows itself to you.10 As we read in Proverbs 22: "Foolishness is bound up in the heart of a boy, and the rod of discipline will drive it away." And the same place in Ecclesiasticus goes on to say: "Bend his neck in youth and strike his sides while he is still a child, lest he grow stubborn, etc." — as we explained above. But a threat of discipline ought to come before the rod, just as a sentence of excommunication is preceded by an admonition. That is to say — a threat is generally more effective than a whipping, or at least does less harm. Children are naturally timid, and for this reason they can sometimes be kept from their own desires and pleasures by a threat alone and held back — just as Virgil says in the Bucolics:11 You who gather flowers and strawberries growing on the ground — flee from this place, cold-hearted children; a snake hides in the grass.

Delegated Authority and the Child's Subjection

Following Augustine, great men entrust discipline to tutors, teachers, guardians, and stewards, and the Apostle confirms that the child remains under their care until the father's appointed time, when freedom is granted age by age.

And indeed, as Augustine says in his book of Eighty-Three Questions, 'a ruler or judge considers it beneath his own standing to strike a condemned person with his own hand.' . . And for this reason he entrusts the task to another — to one whose office it properly belongs — just as it is also fitting for a prince or any great man to entrust the matter to someone, namely, to a tutor or a teacher — the discipline and care of his children. And this is what the Apostle says about the young heir: that he is under guardians and stewards up to the time appointed by his father.✦ Now a tutor is one who nourishes the boy and guides his steps so that he does not stumble; a teacher, on the other hand, is one who instructs him in letters. A guardian, properly speaking, is one who defends the boy and protects his inheritance; a steward, however, is one who manages his possessions, conducts his affairs, and shapes his character. To these, therefore, the boy ought to be subject, up to the time set by the father — that is to say, until he is old enough to govern himself and his own affairs.✦ And he ought to grant him freedom over himself and his own affairs, as each stage of life requires.

Read the original Latin

In duobus autem consistit puerorum erudicio, sc. ut a malo coherceantur et ad bonum informentur, et utrumque pertinet ad disciplinam. Nam disciplina dicitur et ipsa cohercio, que fit ad correctionem, et ipsa correctio, que sequitur cohercionem. Magnaque preceptori uel eruditori generatur confusio et infamia, si circa pueros, precipue nobilissimos, non proficit eius erudicio uel doctrina. ut plutharchus philosophus, imperatoris traiani dydascalus uel institutor, elegantem libellum scripsit eidem traiano, cuius titulus est institucio traiani, et incipit hoc modo: ‘plutharchus,’ inquit, ‘traiano salutem dicit. Modestiam tuam olim non appetere principatum noui, quem tamen semper morum elegancia merens induisti. Quo quidem tanto iudicaris esse dignior, quanto a crimine ambicionis esse uideris remotior. Itaque fortune mee tueque congratulor uirtuti, si tamen recte gesseris, quod probe meruisti.

Alioquin te et me periculis detrahencium linguis subiectum iri non dubito, cum ignauiam imperatorum roma non ferat et sermo publicus delicta discipulorum in preceptores refundere soleat. Sic seneca neronis sui merito detrahencium linguis carpitur, adolescencium suorum temeritas in quintilianum refunditur et socrates in pupillum suum fuisse clemencior criminatur. Tu uero te geres rectissime, si non recesseris a te. Si primo te conposueris . . . ad uirtutem . .

. recte uniuersa procedent. politice constitucionis maiores tibi uires exculpsi, cui si obtemperas plutarchum habes actorem uiuendi. Alioquin presentem epistolam testem inuoco, quod in perniciem imperij non pergis auctore plutarcho.’ Hec plutarchus. Instrumenta cohercionis sunt increpaciones, conminaciones, uirge, ferule, et huiusmodi, quibus, ut dictum est supra secundum augustinum, et impericia debellatur et praua cupiditas infirmatur uel refrenatur. ut enim legimus in genesi ix, sensus et cogitacio humani cordis in malum prona sunt ab adolescencia. propter hoc execucionem ipsam malicie oportet in pueris preuenire eique per disciplinam occurrere ac resistere, et hoc diuersimode secundum disposicionem uel habilitatem uniuscuiusque.

Nam aliqui puerorum naturaliter habiles sunt ac susceptibiles doctrine, ita, quod non opus est illos uiolenter trahere uel cogere, sed tantum modo ducere. ut enim dicit ouidius libro de arte io:

ingenium celeste suis uelocius annis surgit.

De tali dicit uarro philosophus ad atheniensem auditorem: ‘Sicut ridenda in sene est puerilitas, obstupescenda est in puero morum optimorum constancia.’ Hinc et stathius in Thebaide libro viio:

Maturius euo robur et ingentes spondet tener impetus annos.

Alii uero magis ex natura corrupta uel ex educacione mala discoli sunt ac peruersi et ideo discipline contrarij et inepti sicut pulli indomiti. Ideo illos freno discipline oportet cohercere et ad bonos mores eciam inuitos assuescere, iuxta illud ouidii in libro epistolarum:

Scilicet ut teneros ledunt iuga prima iuuencos, Frenaque uix patitur de grege captus equs: sic male uixque subit primos mores rude pectus.

Nec ideo cessandum est ab erudicione, licet in principio non multum uideatur proficere, quia sicut idem ouidius in libro methamorphoseos viio testatur:

Flebile principium melior fortuna sequetur.

ut enim dicit seneca in epistola ad lucilium: ‘Inicium eundi ad uirtutes arduum est, quoniam hoc primum imbecille et egre mentis est formidare inexperta. Itaque cogenda est, ut incipiat, deinde non est acerba medicina, protinus enim delectat, dum sanat.’ Hec seneca. Hinc et quintilianus in causarum xiiiia: ‘Non sine morsu aliquo resilitur ab hiis, que uoluptate animum tenuerunt.’ Sed ut dicit terencius:

que dum incipias dumque ignoras, grauia sunt, ubi cognoueris, facilia erunt.

Ideo dicit salomon in prouerbiis xixo: ‘Erudi filium tuum et ne desperes,’ quin sc. erudiri possit in uia fidei et morum. Et ut eruditoria cohercio non nimis seuera, sed moderata sit, subiungit: ‘Ad interfectionem autem eius,’ sc. spiritualem uel corporalem, ‘ne ponas manum tuam.’ Denique, sicut dicit iulius celsus, ‘rerum omnium magister est usus.’ unde cicero in oracione pro cornelio balbo, ‘usus,’ inquit, ‘assiduus uni rei deditus et ingenium et artem sepe uincit.’ Ideo, sicut dicit salustius in iugurtino, ‘plura sunt, que licet grauia sint ex consuetudine, tamen habentur pro nichilo.’ Hinc et ouidius in libro de arte io:

tempore difficiles ueniunt ad aratra iuuenci. Tempore lenta pati frena docentur equi; ferreus assiduo consumitur anulus usu, introit assidua uomer aduncus humo.

Idem in libro iio:

Nichil assuetudine maius. Quod male fers, assuesce; feres bene.

Hinc consonat et illud, quod dicitur a beato bernardo ad eugenium papam: ‘Jugum quidem domini primo videtur intolerabile, deinde, si assuescas, non est adeo graue, postea uero leue, tandem est delectabile.’ Itaque de subiectione puerorum et cohercione sic loquitur apostolus ad galathas iiii: ‘Quanto,’ inquit, ‘tempore heres paruulus est, nichil differt a seruo, cum sit dominus omnium, sed sub tutoribus et auctoribus est usque ad perfinitum tempus a patre.’ Nichil, inquam, differt a seruo quantum ad subiectionem et disciplinam, de qua dicitur in ecclesiastico xxxiii: ‘Cibaria et uirga et honus asino, panis et disciplina et opus seruo.’ Nec habet rerum paternarum dominium, cum tamen futurus sit dominus omnium. unde dicitur in eodem xxx, loquendo patri de puero: ‘Ne des illi potestatem scil. sui uel suorum in iuuentute, ne sc. abutatur ea in prodigalitate, sicut filius prodigus, qui dixit patri suo, ut legitur in luca xv: ‘Pater, da michi porcionem substancie, que me contingit.’ Acceptaque porcione dissipauit substanciam suam viuendo luxuriose.

unde et gregorius, ‘Nummum,’ inquit, ‘puero subtrahimus, cui tamen totam hereditatem reseruamus.’ Recteque ibidem in ecclesiastico subiungitur: ‘Et ne despicias cogitatus illius,’ id est non negligas eum corrigere de malis suis cogitacionibus ad noticiam tuam prodeuntibus. ut enim legitur in prouerbiis xxii: ‘stulticia colligata est in corde pueri et uirga discipline fugabit eam.’ Hinc et ibidem in ecclesiastico subditur: ‘Curua ceruicem eius in iuuentute et tunde latera eius, dum infans est, ne forte induret etc. ,’ sicut exposuimus supra. at uirge disciplinam precedere debet conminacio, sicut excommunicacionis sentenciam admonicio. Que sc. conminacio plerumque plus quam flagellacio ualet uel minus nocet.

Pueri namque naturaliter sunt timidi et ob hoc a uoluntatibus et uoluptatibus suis aliquando sola conminacione deterreri possunt et arceri, iuxta illud uirgilii in bucolicis:

Qui legitis flores et humi nascencia fraga, frigidus, o pueri, fugite hinc, latet anguis in herba.

verum quia, sicut dicit augustinus in libro questionum LXXXIII, ‘princeps vel iudex dampnatum percutere sua persona iudicat indignum . . . et ob hoc alii conmittit, cui tale conpetit officium,’ sic eciam principem uel quemlibet magnatem decet alicui conmittere, uidel. pedagogo uel dydascalo, disciplinam et curam filiorum. Et hoc est, quod dicit apostolus de paruulo herede, quod sub tutoribus et actoribus est usque ad prefinitum tempus a patre. Dicitur autem pedagogus, qui puerum nutrit, eius gressus, ne offendat, regit; dydasculus uero, qui eum in litteris instruit. Tutor autem dicitur proprie, qui eum et hereditatem eius defendit ac protegit, actor uero, qui dona eius dispensat et causas eius agit, eiusque mores informat.

Hiis ergo debet puer subesse usque ad tempus prefinitum a patre, quo sc. ei libertatem sui suorumque uelit ac debeat pro tempore dare.

Scripture echoes

  1. ↩Gen.9.21 — He drank of the wine and became drunk and lay uncovered in his tent.
  2. ↩Prov.19.18 — Discipline your son while there is hope, and do not set your heart on his destruction.
  3. ↩Prov.19.18 — Discipline your son while there is hope, and do not set your heart on his destruction.
  4. ↩Prov.19.18 — Discipline your son while there is hope, and do not set your heart on his destruction.
  5. ↩Matt.11.30 — For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light.
  6. ↩Gal.4.1-Gal.4.2 — Now I say, for as long as the heir is a child, he differs nothing from a slave, though he is lord of all things, Gal.4.2 — but he is under guardians and stewards until the time set by the father.
  7. ↩Luke.15.12 — And the younger of them said to his father, 'Father, give me the share of the estate that falls to me.' And he divided his livelihood between them.
  8. ↩Luke.15.13 — And not many days later, the younger son, having gathered everything together, departed to a distant country, and there he squandered his property by living recklessly.
  9. ↩Gal.4.1-Gal.4.2 — Now I say, for as long as the heir is a child, he differs nothing from a slave, though he is lord of all things, Gal.4.2 — but he is under guardians and stewards until the time set by the father.
  10. ↩Gal.4.1-Gal.4.2 — Now I say, for as long as the heir is a child, he differs nothing from a slave, though he is lord of all things, Gal.4.2 — but he is under guardians and stewards until the time set by the father.

Notes

  1. 1 ↩Rendered 'prima mores' as 'first habits of conduct' to capture the sense of early character-formation; 'mores' here means ingrained customs or moral habits, not merely manners.
  2. 2 ↩'Rude pectus' (unformed breast/heart) is rendered 'unformed heart' — 'rude' here means unshaped, untrained, not coarse or crude.
  3. 3 ↩egre mentis: the syntactic relationship between the adverb egre ('scarcely, with difficulty') and the genitive mentis ('of mind') is ambiguous; rendered here as 'scarcely of sound mind' to capture the sense of a will too weak to face what it has not yet experienced.
  4. 4 ↩inexperta: substantive use of the adjective as object of formidare; rendered 'the untried' to preserve the sense of things not yet experienced.
  5. 5 ↩cogenda est: impersonal gerundive construction ('she/he must be compelled'); the subject is contextually supplied from the chapter's topic of disciplining children.
  6. 6 ↩medicina: metaphorical, referring to corrective discipline as medicinal.
  7. 7 ↩xiiiia: the numeral reading is uncertain; rendered as 'section fourteen' as the most plausible interpretation.
  8. 8 ↩resilitur: metaphorical use of 'recoils, springs back'; rendered 'recoils' to capture the sense of pulling away from pleasurable habits.
  9. 9 ↩morsu: literally 'bite'; rendered 'sting' to convey the figurative sense of painful resistance.
  10. 10 ↩cogitatus rendered "reflections" (inner thoughts/considerations); could also be "designs" or "schemes" depending on nuance.
  11. 11 ↩The Virgil quotation that follows in the next section (Erud.1.25.21) is the line being referenced here: a warning to boys to flee danger.

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