Vita Caroli

Departure from Lombardy and Family Reunions

Charles's father, unable to sustain war in Lombardy, attempts to entrust cities to Charles, who refuses; they travel through Tyrol and Bavaria, reuniting with family members and renewing alliances.

After these things, our father, seeing that his funds were running out and that he could no longer carry on the war against the aforesaid lords of Lombardy, began thinking about withdrawing, and he wanted to entrust those same cities and the war to us. We, however, refused, because we could not hold them with honor. Then, having been given leave to depart, he sent us ahead toward Bohemia. And after arranging truces with our enemies, we crossed through the territory of Mantua to Verona, and from there into the county of Tyrol, where we found our brother John, whom our father had married to the daughter of the duke of Carinthia and count of Tyrol. This duke, our brother's father-in-law, had previously had our mother's sister Anna as his wife, as was written above. After his death, however, he had taken as his wife the sister of the duke of Brunswick, by whom he had had the aforesaid daughter named Margaret. And since she had given our brother, after his death, the duchy of Carinthia and the county of Tyrol—for she had no male heir— And so peace had been made between him and our father, because before they had been enemies on account of the expulsion of that same duke, whom our father had driven out of Bohemia, as was written above. Then we crossed through Bavaria, where we found our older sister Margaret, who had one son with Henry, duke of Bavaria, named John.

Return to a Desolate Bohemia

After eleven years abroad, Charles returns to Bohemia to find his mother dead, his sisters in France, and the kingdom in ruins, yet he relearns Bohemian and is entrusted with authority by his father.

Then we arrived in Bohemia, from which we had been absent for eleven years. We found, however, that several years before, our mother, called Elizabeth, had died. While she was still living, our second-born sister, her daughter by the name of Guta, had been sent to France and married to John, the firstborn son of Philip, king of France, whose sister, Blanche, we had as our wife. Our third and last sister, Anna, was with our said sister in France at that time. And so when we came into Bohemia, we found neither father nor mother nor brother nor sisters nor anyone we knew. We had also handed the Bohemian language over entirely to oblivion, which we relearned afterward, so that we spoke and understood like any other Bohemian.¹ But by divine grace we came to know not only Bohemian, but also French, Lombard, German, and Latin — to speak, write, and read them — so that any one of these languages was as suitable to us as any other for writing, reading, speaking, and understanding.² Then our father, heading toward the county of Luxembourg on account of a certain war he was waging with the duke of Brabant — he and his allies, namely the bishop of Liège, the margrave of Jülich, the count of Guelders, and very many others — entrusted his authority to us during his absence in Bohemia.³⁴

Restoring the Kingdom

Charles rebuilds Prague Castle, recovers pledged castles across Bohemia and Moravia, governs justly for two years, and arranges his sister Anna's marriage to the Duke of Austria.

We found the kingdom so desolate that we didn't find a single castle unburdened — it was all pledged along with every royal possession, so that we had nowhere to stay except in city houses, like any other citizen. The castle of Prague was so desolate, destroyed, and shattered to pieces that, from the time of King Ottokar, it had been leveled completely to the ground. There we arranged for a new, large, and beautiful palace to be built at great expense, as is plain to see for anyone looking at it today. At that time we sent for our wife, because she was still in Luxembourg. When she arrived, after one year she bore a firstborn daughter named Margaret. During those times our father had given us the Margraviate of Moravia, and we held that same title. But when the community of worthy men in Bohemia saw that we were of the ancient line of the kings of Bohemia, they held us in esteem and gave us their help to recover the castles and royal possessions. Then, with great expense and effort, we recovered the castles of Purglinum, Tyrzow, Liuchtenburg, Lutycz, Grecz, Pyesek, Necztyni, Zbyroh, Tachow, and Trutnow in Bohemia; but in Moravia, the castles of Luccow, Telcz, Weverzi, Olomouc, Brno, and Znojmo, and however many other properties that had been pledged and alienated from the kingdom. We had many soldiers ready and serving, and the kingdom prospered from day to day. The community of good men loved us, while the wicked, out of fear, kept themselves from doing evil. Justice flourished sufficiently in the realm, since the barons had for the most part become tyrants and did not fear the king as they should have, because they had divided the kingdom among themselves. And so we held the captaincy of the kingdom, improving it from day to day, for two years. During that time we gave our younger sister, Anna by name, in marriage to Otto, Duke of Austria.

The Loss of Carinthia

After the Duke of Carinthia dies, Louis the Bavarian conspires with the Dukes of Austria to seize Carinthia from Charles's brother, who loses the duchy but retains Tyrol.

And in those days the duke of Carinthia, our brother's father-in-law, died. And although our brother should have inherited the duchy of Carinthia and the county of Tyrol after that man's death, Louis — who was acting as emperor — had already secretly formed a league with the dukes of Austria, namely Albert and Otto, to divide up our brother's domain in secret and by deceit, with Louis wanting the county of Tyrol for himself and the dukes the duchy of Carinthia — Louis, unmindful and ungrateful for the services our father had shown him in the attainment of the empire, as is written above.⁵ The duke of Austria, however — though he had our sister — immediately after the death of the aforesaid duke of Carinthia, through a conspiracy held secretly with the lord of Aufsteyn, who served as captain on behalf of the duke over all Carinthia, at once seized Carinthia with his brother, which the same lord of Aufsteyn freely handed over to them and gave them possession of it.⁶ And so our brother lost the duchy of Carinthia. Those in charge of the county of Tyrol, however, refused to submit to Louis, but remained in obedience to our brother.

False Counsel and Dispossession

Evil counselors turn Charles's father against him, claiming Charles is too powerful; as a result, Charles is stripped of all castles and authority, left only with the empty title of Margrave of Moravia.

Once those events had passed, our father came into Bohemia and brought his wife with him, whom he had received as his queen, by name Beatrice, daughter of the duke of Bourbon, of the line of the kings of France, with whom she later bore an only son named Wenceslaus. Then evil and false counselors gained influence against us with our father, claiming their own profit, both the Bohemians and those from the county of Luxembourg. Approaching our father, they suggested to him, saying: "Lord, "Provide for yourselves, your son has in the kingdom many castles and a great retinue from your side, so that if he prevails thus for long, he will drive you out when he wishes; for he himself is the heir of the kingdom and of the stock of the kings of Bohemia, and he is much loved by the Bohemians, but you are strangers."⁷ They were saying this seeking profit and their own position, so that he would entrust to them the castles and the aforementioned goods. He, however, assented so greatly to their counsels that he distrusted us, and on account of these things he took away from us all the castles and the administration in Bohemia and in the margraviate of Moravia. And so there remained to us only the title of margrave of Moravia, without substance.

The Haunted Chamber at Prague

One night in Prague, Charles and his companion Bussko experience a terrifying supernatural event: invisible footsteps and a wine cup hurled across the room by an unseen force, leaving physical evidence by morning.

At that time we were riding one day from Purglino to Prague, wanting to go to our father, who was in Moravia, and so we arrived late at the castle of Prague, at the old house of the burgrave, where we had stayed for several years before the great palace was built. And at night we lay down in bed, and Bussko of Wilharticz the elder in the other bed before us. And there was a large fire in the room, because it was winter, and many candles were burning in the room, so that there was sufficient light, and all the doors and windows were shut. And when we had begun to sleep, something was walking about through the room — I don't know what — so that we both woke up, and we told the said Bussko to get up to see what it was. He, getting up, walked around through the room searching, and he saw nothing and couldn't find anything at all. Then he made a larger fire and lit more candles, and he went over to the cups that were standing full of wine on the benches, and he drank and set one cup back beside a large burning candle. After he drank, he lay down again in bed, and we, wrapped in our cloak, were sitting in bed and hearing someone walking about, though we couldn't see anyone at all. And so, looking with the said Bussko over the cups and candles, we saw a cup thrown — and the same cup was being thrown, we don't know by whom — beyond Bussko's bed from one corner of the room all the way across to the other wall, and having bounced off the wall it fell into the middle of the room. Seeing these things, we were terribly frightened, and we kept hearing someone walking about in the chamber, but we saw no one. Afterward, having signed ourselves with the holy cross in the name of Christ, we slept until morning.⁸ And in the morning, rising, we found the cup in the middle of the chamber just as it had been thrown, and we showed it to our household members who came to us that morning.⁹

Subduing the Duke of Münsterberg

Charles leads an army against Polco, Duke of Münsterberg, devastates his territory, and forces him to become a vassal of the Bohemian crown, securing royal authority over Silesia.

At that time our father sent us with a fine army against the duke of Silesia named Polco, the lord of Münsterberg. For that duke was neither a prince nor a vassal of our father and the kingdom of Bohemia. Our father, however, had acquired the city of Wrocław through Lord Henry the Seventh, the duke of Wrocław, who had no heirs. And the same duke had received the territory of Glatz as a gift during his lifetime, and he chose rather to attach the aforementioned city and duchy to our father and to the crown of the kingdom of Bohemia in perpetuity than to leave them to his brother Bolesław, because he and his brother were hostile to one another. But after our father had taken possession of the city of Wrocław, all the dukes of Silesia and Opole submitted themselves to his authority forever and to the crown of the kingdom of Bohemia, so that they might be protected and defended by the kings of the Bohemians, excepted the duke of Silesia, the lord of Świdnica, and Polco, the lord of Münsterberg. We devastated his territory, as it is written in the chronicle. It was devastated to such an extent that he himself, through settlements mediated by agreements, was forced to become a vassal of our father and of the crown of the kingdom of Bohemia, just as the other dukes did.

Peace with Poland and the Hungarian Alliance

At Visegrád, King Charles of Hungary brokers peace between Charles's father and the King of Kraków over Polish territories, then pledges military aid against Louis the Bavarian and the Duke of Austria.

Once these things were done, we set out on the journey toward Hungary to find our father, whom we found at Visegrád on the Danube, near King Charles the First. This king had previously married our father's sister; but after she died, he had taken as his wife the sister of King Kazimierz of Kraków, by whom he had three sons: the firstborn Louis, the second Andrew, and the third Stephen. And there the same King Charles made peace between our father and the king of Kraków, so that our father would renounce the right owed to him in Lower Poland — namely in the Gniezno and Kalisz regions and in the other lower provinces of Poland. The king of Kraków indeed renounced, in perpetuity, all claim against our father and the kingdom of Bohemia, on behalf of himself and his successors as kings of Lower Poland, concerning all the duchies of Silesia and Opole and the city of Wrocław. For there had previously been disagreement between them, because our grandfather Wenceslaus the Second, king of Bohemia, had possessed the aforementioned Lower Poland along with the duchies of Kraków and Sandomierz by reason of his only daughter Przemysl — she was the daughter of the king of Lower Poland, duke of Kraków and Sandomierz — whom he had taken as his wife. This Przemysl, after his death, had granted to our grandfather and to the crown of the kingdom of Bohemia, in perpetuity, both the kingdom and the duchies to be possessed. The aforementioned Kazimirus was the maternal uncle of that lady, and he claimed that he himself had a right to the kingdom of Lower Poland, asserting that a woman could not inherit a kingdom. And so the war had lasted for a long time between the kings of Bohemia and Kazimierz and his late father Władysław — that is, the kings of Kraków or of Lower Poland. And so that war was settled through the aforementioned king of Hungary. Because of this, he bound himself and promised to come to our father's aid against the duke of Austria, who had taken the duchy of Carinthia from our brother, and against the aforementioned Louis. Those who were in this alliance were: our father, the king of Hungary; Henry, the duke of Bavaria, who had our sister as his wife.

Governance of Tyrol

Charles is sent to govern the county of Tyrol on behalf of his young brother and sister-in-law, receiving authority from the local nobles to administer the territory.

Around that same time, our father sent us into the county of Tyrol to govern it, and our brother with his wife — they were both still in boyhood. So we went and took charge of these matters just as our father had entrusted them to us, and we were given authority to govern that country by the natives of the county mentioned above.

Read the original Latin

Post hec pater noster videns, quod expense sibi deficiebant et guerram ulterius ferre contra predictos dominos Lombardie non posset, cogitavit de recessu suo et volebat nobis committere easdem civitates et guerram. Nos vero recusavimus, quia cum honore conservare non poteramus. Tunc data nobis licencia recedendi premisit nos versus Boemiam. Et receptis treugis cum inimicis nostris transivimus per territorium Mantuanum in Veronam, abinde in comitatum Tyrolis, ubi invenimus fratrem nostrum nomine Johannem, quem pater noster copulaverat filie ducis Karinthie comitisque Tyrolis. Qui dux, socer fratris nostri, habuerat prius sororem matris nostre nomine Annam, prout superius scriptum est. Post obitum vero eius receperat uxorem sororem ducis de Brunswich, cum qua predictam filiam habuerat nomine Margaretham. Et cum eadem dederat fratri nostro post obitum suum ducatum Karinthie et comitatum Tyrolis; nam prole masculina carebat. Et sic pax facta erat inter eum et patrem nostrum, quia ante erant inimici propter expulsionem eiusdem ducis, quem pater noster expulerat de Boemia, prout superius scriptum est.

Deinde transivimus per Bavariam, ubi invenimus sororem nostram seniorem nomine Margaretham, que unicum filium habebat cum Heinrico, duce Bavarie, nomine Johannem.

Deinde pervenimus in Boemiam, de qua absens fueramus undecim annis. Invenimus autem, quod aliquot annis ante mater nostra dicta Elyzabeth mortua erat. Ipsa vero vivente soror nostra secundogenita, filia sua, nomine Guta, missa erat in Franciam et copulata Johanni, filio primogenito Philippi, regis Francie, cuius sororem nomine Blanczam habebamus in uxorem. Tercia vero soror nostra et ultima nomine Anna erat apud dictam sororem nostram in Francia temporibus illis.

Et sic cum venissemus in Boemiam, non invenimus nec patrem nec matrem nec fratrem nec sorores nec aliquem notum. Idioma quoque Boemicum ex toto oblivioni tradideramus, quod post redidicimus, ita ut loqueremur et intelligeremus ut alter Boemus. Ex divina autem gracia non solum Boemicum, sed Gallicum, Lombardicum, Teutunicum et Latinum ita loqui, scribere et legere scivimus, ut una lingua istarum sicut altera ad scribendum, legendum loquendum et intelligendum nobis erat apta. Tunc pater noster procedens versus comitatum Luczemburgensem propter quandam guerram, quam gerebat cum duce Bravancie ipse et college sui, videlicet Leodiensis episcopus, Juliacensis marchio, Gerlenensis comes et quam plures alii, commisit nobis auctoritatem suam temporibus absencie sue in Boemia.

Quod regnum invenimus ita desolatum, quod nec unum castrum invenimus liberum, quod non esset obligatum cum omnibus bonis regalibus, ita quod non habebamus ubi manere, nisi in domibus civitatum sicut alter civis. Castrum vero Pragense ita desolatum, destructum ac comminutum fuit, quod a tempore Ottogari regis totum prostratum fuit usque ad terram. Ubi de novo palacium magnum et pulchrum cum magnis sumptibus edificari procuravimus, prout hodierna die apparet intuentibus. Tempore illo misimus pro uxore nostra, quia adhuc erat in Luczemburg. Que cum venisset, post unum annum habuit filiam primogenitam nomine Margaretham. Illis autem temporibus dederat nobis pater noster marchionatum Moravie et eodem titulo utebamur. Videns autem communitas de Boemia proborum virorum, quod eramus de antiqua stirpe regum Boemorum, diligentes nos dederunt nobis auxilium ad recuperanda castra et bona regalia. Tunc cum magnis sumptibus et laboribus recuperavimus castra Purglinum, Tyrzow, Liuchtenburg, Lutycz, Grecz, Pyesek, Necztyni, Zbyroh, Tachow, Trutnow in Boemia; in Moravia vero Luccow, Telcz, Weverzi, Olomucense, Brunense et Znoymense castra, et quam plura alia bona obligata et alienata a regno.

Et habebamus multos paratos militares servientes, et prosperabatur regnum de die in diem, diligebatque nos communitas bonorum, mali vero timentes precavebant a malo, et iusticia sufficienter vigebat in regno, quoniam barones pro maiori parte effecti erant tyranni, nec timebant regem, prout decebat, quia regnum inter se diviserant. Et sic tenuimus capitaneatum regni meliorando de die in diem per duos annos. Tempore illo tradidimus iuniorem sororem nostram nomine Annam Ottoni, duci Austrie, in uxorem.

Et in illis diebus mortuus est dux Karinthie, socer fratris nostri. Et cum frater noster debuisset accipere possessionem ducatus Karinthie et comitatus Tyrolis post mortem ipsius, tunc fecerat occulte ligam Ludovicus, qui se gerebat pro imperatore, cum ducibus Austrie, Alberto videlicet et Ottone, ad dividendum dominium fratris nostri occulte et false, volens idem Ludovicus habere comitatum Tyrolis, duces vero ducatum Karinthie, inmemor Ludovicus et ingratus serviciorum patris nostri, que sibi exhibuerat in adepcione imperii, prout supra est scriptum. Dux vero Austrie, licet sororem nostram haberet, statim post obitum ducis Karinthie predicti per conspiracionem habitam secreto cum domino de Aufsteyn, qui erat capitaneus ex parte ducis tocius Karinthie, statim cum fratre suo habuerunt Karinthiam, quam idem de Aufsteyn eis libere tradidit ac possessionem ei[s]dem dedit. Et sic frater noster perdidit ducatum Karinthie. Illi vero de comitatu Tyrolis noluerunt se subdere Ludovico, sed permanserunt in obediencia fratris nostri.

Illis peractis venit pater noster in Boemiam et adduxit post se uxorem suam, quam receperat sibi in reginam, nomine Beatricem, filiam ducis de Burbon, de genere regum Francie, cum qua postea genuit unicum filium nomine Wenceslaum. Tunc mali et falsi consiliarii invaluerunt contra nos aput patrem nostrum, lucrum proprium pretendentes, tam Boemi quam de comitatu Luczemburgensi. Accedentes patrem nostrum sibi suggesserunt dicentes: "Domine! provideatis vobis, filius vester habet in regno multa castra et magnam sequelam ex parte vestri; unde si diu ita prevalebit, expellet vos, quando voluerit; nam et ipse heres regni et de stirpe regum Boemie est, et multum diligitur a Boemis, vos autem estis advena." Hoc autem dicebant querentes lucrum et locum suum, ut ipsis committeret castra et bona predicta. Ipse autem in tantum assensit consiliis eorum, quod de nobis diffidebat, et propter hec abstulit nobis omnia castra et administracionem in Boemia et in marchionatu Moravie. Et sic nobis remansit solus titulus marchio Moravie sine re.

Illo tempore equitabamus una dierum de Purglino in Pragam, volentes adire patrem nostrum, qui erat in Moravia, et sic tarde venimus in castrum Pragense ad antiquam domum purgraviatus, ubi mansionem per aliquot annos feceramus, antequam palacium magnum fuerat edificatum. Et nocturno tempore deposuimus nos in lecto, et Bussko de Wilharticz senior in altero ante nos. Et erat magnus ignis in camera, quia tempus hiemale erat, multeque candele ardebant in camera, ita quod lumen sufficiens erat, et ianue et fenestre omnes erant clause. Et cum incepissemus dormire, tunc deambulabat nescio quid per cameram, ita quod ambo evigilavimus, et fecimus dictum Busskonem surgere, ut videret, quid esset. Ipse autem surgens circumivit per cameram querens, et nichil vidit nec quidquam potuit invenire. Tunc fecit maiorem ignem et plures candelas incendit, et ivit ad ciffos, qui stabant pleni vino super bancas, et potavit et reposuit unum ciffum prope unam magnam candelam ardentem. Potacione facta tunc deposuit se iterum ad lectum, et nos induti pallio nostro sedebamus in lecto et audiebamus ambulantem, videre tamen neminem poteramus. Et sic respicientes cum predicto Busskone super ciffos et candelas vidimus ciffum proiectum, et idem ciffus proiciebatur, nescimus per quem, ultra lectum Busconis de uno angulo camere usque in alterum in parietem, qui sic reverberatus a pariete cecidit in medium camere.

Videntes hec territi sumus nimium et semper ambulantem in camera audivimus, neminem autem vidimus. Post vero signati sancta cruce in Christi nomine usque in mane dormivimus. Et mane surgentes ciffum, prout proiectus erat, in medio camere invenimus et ea nostris familiaribus ad nos de mane venientibus ostendimus.

Illo tempore misit nos pater noster cum pulchro exercitu super ducem Slezie nomine Polconem, dominum Munsterberiensem. Nam ille dux non erat princeps neque vasallus patris nostri et regni Boemie. Pater tamen noster acquisierat civitatem Wratislaviensem per dominum Henricum septimum, ducem Wratislaviensem, qui heredes non habebat. Et idem dux acceperat in donum Glacense territorium temporibus vite sue, voluitque pocius predictam civitatem ac ducatum patri nostro et corone regni Boemie perpetuo applicare quam fratri suo Boleslao dimittere, quia ipse et frater suus mutuo sibi inimicabantur. Postquam autem pater noster accepisset possessionem civitatis Wratislaviensis, omnes duces Slezie et Opuliensis subiecerunt se dicioni sue perpetuo ac corone regni Boemie, ut tuerentur et defenderentur a regibus Boemorum, exceptis duce Slezie, domino Swydnicensi, et Polcone domino Munsterberiensi. Cuius territorium devastavimus, prout in cronica scriptum est. Quod in tantum fuit devastatum, quod ipse coactus est mediantibus placitis esse vasallus patris nostri ac corone regni Boemie sicut et alii duces.

Hiis peractis arripuimus iter versus Ungariam ad patrem nostrum, quem invenimus in Wissegrado super Danubio aput regem Karolum primum. Qui ante habuerat sororem patris nostri, ipsa vero defuncta acceperat sororem regis Cracovie Kazomiri, cum qua genuerat tres filios: primogenitum Ludovicum, secundum Andream tercium Stephanum. Ibique fecit idem rex Karolus pacem inter patrem nostrum et Cracovie regem, ita quod renunciaret pater noster iuri sibi debito in inferiori Polonia, scilicet Gneznensi et Kalixiensi et aliis inferioribus provinciis Polonie. Rex vero Cracovie renunciavit patri nostro et regno Boemie pro se et successoribus suis regibus Inferioris Polonie in perpetuum de omni accione omnium ducatuum Slezie et Opulie et civitatis Wratislavie. Nam ante erat dissensio inter eos, quoniam avus noster Wenceslaus secundus, rex Boemie, possederat Inferiorem Poloniam predictam cum ducatibus Cracovie et Sandomerie racione unice filie Przemisl, regis Inferioris Polonie, ducis Cracovie et Sandomerie, quam acceperat in uxorem. Qui Przemisl post mortem suam dederat avo nostro et corone regni Boemie in perpetuum tam regnum quam ducatus possidendos. Kazomirus vero predictus erat patruus ipsius domine, et dicebat se ius habere in regno Polonie Inferioris, asserendo, quod femina non posset hereditare in regno. Et sic guerra a longis temporibus duraverat inter reges Boemie et Kazomirum ac patrem suum quondam Wladislaum nomine, reges Cracovie seu Inferioris Polonie.

Sicque illa guerra concordata fuit per predictum regem Ungarie. Qui propter hoc ligavit se et promisit esse in adiutorio patris nostri contra ducem Austrie, qui abstulerat fratri nostro ducatum Karinthie, et contra Ludovicum predictum. Hii autem fuerant in hac liga: scilicet pater noster, rex Ungarie, dux Bavarie Henricus, qui sororem nostram habebat in uxorem.

Eodem tempore misit nos pater noster in comitatum Tyrolis, ut eundem gubernaremus ac fratrem nostrum cum sua uxore, ipsis existentibus in etate puerili. Sicque euntes intromisimus nos de hiis, sicut pater noster commiserat nobis, fuimusque admissi ad regimen illius patrie per terrigenas comitatus supradicti.

Notes

1 ↩redidicimus is a rare compound (re- + didicimus); rendered as 'relearned' to capture the sense of learning again what was forgotten.
2 ↩gracia rendered as 'grace' per lexeme policy (divine gift/effect).
3 ↩cum at token 12 functions as a preposition ('with') rather than a temporal conjunction; rendered accordingly.
4 ↩quam plures: literally 'how many more,' rendered idiomatically as 'very many' to capture the exclamatory force.
5 ↩adepcione is a rare/medieval form of adeptio; rendered as 'attainment' to convey the sense of obtaining/acquiring the empire.
6 ↩The manuscript abbreviation 's' in 'eis' was expanded to 'eidem' in the normalized text; the translation follows the expanded reading ('to them').
7 ↩The counselors' speech is rendered as direct discourse; 'provideatis' is hortatory subjunctive ('provide for yourselves' / 'see to your own interests').
8 ↩vero is ambiguous (adversative/emphatic/confirmatory); rendered as 'afterward' to mark temporal transition without overcommitting to adversative force.
9 ↩ciffum is a rare/uncertain form, rendered as 'cup' based on context (cf. ciphos in preceding section).

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