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← The Education of a Christian Prince (Institutio principis Christiani)/Book 1 · Institutio Principis Christiani
Chapter 2Inst.1.2

Caput secundum: De adulatione uitanda Principi.

The Plague of Flattery

Flattery is a deadly political disease that overthrows empires and reduces even the mightiest princes to playthings of contemptible men.

And this can't be done unless flatterers are kept away by every means — a plague to which the happiness of great princes is especially vulnerable. The very simplicity of youth is especially open to this evil — partly because by natural inclination it takes more pleasure in flattery than in truth, and partly because of inexperience with the world, which makes it less suspicious of snares and less able to guard against them. And lest anyone think this is a trivial evil to be ignored, let him know that the most flourishing empires of the greatest kings have been overthrown by the tongues of flatterers. Nowhere do we read that a commonwealth was oppressed by harsh tyranny where flatterers did not play the leading roles in the tragedy. Diogenes saw this clearly, unless I'm mistaken. When he was asked what animal was the most harmful of all, he said, 'If you mean wild beasts, the Tyrant; if you mean tame ones, the Flatterer.' This plague has a certain seductive poison — but so potent that princes who were once the world's rulers, maddened by it, allowed themselves to be toyed with and ridden by the most wicked flatterers; and over those who were masters of all things, these most contemptible little men — freedmen, and sometimes even slaves — held sway.

Guarding the Prince's Household

The prince's nurses, companions, and servants must be carefully chosen and strictly disciplined, with public punishment for any who corrupt the future ruler's mind.

First, then, care must be taken to hire nurses who are either entirely free from this disease, or at least as slightly touched by it as possible. For the female sex itself is commonly and especially vulnerable to this evil. Moreover, nurses generally take on the affections of the mothers, and the common run of them frequently corrupt the characters of children through indulgence. Indeed, this entire class of people must be kept away from the future prince, if it can be done, since by its very nature it is almost akin to two great evils: foolishness and flattery.1 The next concern must be that companions of a generous and liberal character be assigned to him, and that in this way the process of formation be guided by the one who oversees his education — companions who will be at his side without flattery, so that he grows accustomed to speaking with refinement, yet without ever feigning or lying for the sake of favor.2 As for choosing a teacher, that has already been addressed. And it's no small thing how much influence attendants have when they constantly indulge the desires of young princes—whether out of foolishness or because they hope to gain some personal advantage from it. Therefore, as far as possible, men who are both sensible and upright should be appointed to this role. Beyond that, they must be warned and sternly deterred from flattery by admonitions and threats, and on the other hand encouraged by rewards to carry out their duty faithfully. In this matter it will be very effective if anyone caught doing this—that is, using base words and servile attentions to lure the prince's mind toward things unworthy of a ruler—is publicly punished as a warning to others, even with the death penalty if the gravity of the offense demands it.3 And no one should think this cruel: if we put to death a thief who has stolen a mere handful of coins—and this goes beyond the precedent of all ancient laws—then let the ultimate punishment be inflicted on the man who set out to corrupt that which the fatherland holds most dear and precious.4 But if the novelty of such a punishment stands in the way of its being accepted—even though the Roman Emperor Alexander once had a seller of incense from Thurii tied to a stake and suffocated over a fire of green wood—it can be arranged by other means: if someone is convicted of any other capital crime, let him be punished on this very charge, that he corrupted the mind of the future prince with poisonous flattery.5 If it is right to weigh carefully the punishments inflicted on those who do real harm, a poisonous flatterer who corrupts and poisons the prince's earliest years with tyrannical ideas does more damage to the commonwealth than someone who plunders the public treasury. A man who debases the prince's coinage is punished with every kind of refined torture—and yet corrupting the prince's soul is practically rewarded.6

The Universal Conspiracy of Flattery

Everyone at court flatters the prince—teachers, preachers, nobles, priests, physicians, orators, confessors, poets, and even astrologers—each pursuing their own advantage while neglecting the common good.

And would that among Christians at least that saying of Carneades were less true — he who denied that anything could rightly be learned from the sons of kings, except the art of riding, because in all other matters everyone complies and assents: but a single horse, since it doesn't understand whether a patrician or a plebeian, a wealthy man or a poor man, a prince or a private citizen sits upon its back, throws off whoever has mounted with too little skill. But now very often we see it happen that not only nurses and companions and attendants flatter the children of princes, but even the very teacher and guide of boyhood conducts his own business, not looking to this end — that he send the prince away a better man — but that he himself depart wealthier. For the sake of favor, not rarely do even those who preach about sacred matters speak, hunting for the goodwill of the prince and the courtiers: or if they censure anything, they bite in such a way that they flatter most precisely then. I don't say these things because I consider those men to be approved who rage with seditious shouts against the life of princes, but because, without insult, I would wish the example of a good prince to be set forth by them; and I would not wish flattery to be approved in a Christian prince — the very things pagans condemned among pagans: magistrates don't warn freely, and counselors don't advise in a sufficiently friendly way. For the nobles, since they generally disagree among themselves in their pursuits, all court the prince's favor emulously, but in order to press down an adversary, or lest they supply any opportunity for harm to an enemy. Priests flatter, physicians assent. For it is now everywhere customary to hear pure praises from orators sent from elsewhere. One sacred anchor remained, which also very often deceives — namely those whom the common people call royal confessors: if they were upright and prudent, certainly in that deepest secret they could lovingly and freely warn the prince. But in truth it usually happens that, while each person pursues their own advantage, they neglect to consider the public good. And indeed poets and rhetoricians do less harm — everyone already knows that their practice is to measure the praises of princes not by the princes' actual merits but by their own inventiveness. Far more dangerous are the breed of magicians and soothsayers, who promise kings long life, victories, triumphs, pleasures, and power. Others again threaten sudden death, disaster, trouble, and exile — exploiting hope and fear for that purpose, the two chief tyrants over human life. To this class belong the astrologers, who claim to foretell the future from the stars — whether there is any real skill in that is not for this place to examine. But certainly, as they are now commonly practiced, they bring no ordinary plague upon human affairs.

The Most Dangerous Flatterers

The most pernicious flattery disguises itself as frankness, and the most vulnerable are those who flatter themselves, as Plato warned.

But the most pernicious kind of all flatterers is the one that flatters under the appearance of frankness, and by a remarkable artifice, while resisting, urges on — rebuking harsh things, praising. Plutarch portrayed these flatterers wonderfully in a little book he titled *How a Friend Can Be Distinguished from a Flatterer*. Now there are two ages especially exposed to flattery: childhood, because of ignorance, and old age, because of weakness of mind. In whatever age, folly is present — and it always leads self-love as its companion. But Plato rightly warned that the most dangerous kind of flattery is when a person is his own flatterer, and for that reason easily offers himself to others doing the same thing he was already doing on his own.

Silent Flattery in Art and Images

Paintings, statues, and colossal monuments silently flatter the prince; artists should instead portray him in acts of virtue and wholesome governance.

There is a kind of silent flattery — in paintings, statues, and inscriptions. That's how Apelles flattered Alexander the Great — by painting him wielding a thunderbolt in his hand. And Octavius loved being painted in the image of Apollo. The same goes for the enormous colossi that were once erected for emperors — beyond all human scale. This may seem trivial to someone, but there's real weight in it: artists should portray the prince with a bearing and dress that befits someone most worthy of a wise and serious ruler. And it's better to portray someone actively engaged in something that serves the commonwealth — rather than an idle figure like Alexander, closing one ear with his hand while hearing cases. Or show Darius holding a Punic apple, or Scipio restoring an untouched bride to a young man, rejecting the gold that was offered.7 A prince's halls should be adorned with wholesome paintings of this kind — not ones that teach wantonness, arrogance, or tyranny.

Titles That Remind Rather Than Flatter

A prince's titles should call him to duty—most upright, most merciful, most holy—rather than puff him up with empty grandeur.

Now, when it comes to titles, I wouldn't deny that a prince should be given his due honor; yet I'd prefer titles that remind him, at least to some degree, of his duty — that is, I'd prefer him to be called most upright, most incorruptible, most wise, most merciful, most beneficent, most prudent, most vigilant, most moderate, most devoted to his homeland, rather than renowned, most unconquered, a conqueror, ever majestic — not to mention, meanwhile, highnesses, sacred majesties, divine titles, and others even more flattering still. I approve the custom by which the Roman pontiff is now honored with the title 'Most Holy.' For while he hears these things constantly, he is reminded of what ought to be rendered to him and of what is most beautiful in him — not whether he is the wealthiest or rules most widely, but whether he excels in holiness.

Turning Titles into Admonitions

The prince must learn to hear even unavoidable flattery as a mirror of duty: 'Father of the Fatherland' calls him to fatherly care, 'Unconquered' to mastery of his passions, and even laws and panegyrics must be received with discernment.

But if it can't be avoided — if the prince sometimes hears these things even against his will — he still shouldn't pretend he doesn't notice what flatters him most. Alexander Severus is said to have detested all flatterers to such a degree that if anyone greeted him with excessive deference or bowed his head too obsequiously, he'd immediately drive the man away with abuse. But if the person's rank or office had shielded him from insult, Severus would rebuke that one with a stern look. The young prince must therefore be warned beforehand, so that he turns to his own advantage the titles he is compelled to hear. He hears "Father of the Fatherland" — let him consider that no title was ever given to princes that more properly befits a good prince than "Father of the Fatherland."8 This, then, is what he must do for himself: prove himself worthy of this title. If he reflects on it this way, it will be an admonition; but if otherwise, it will be mere flattery.9 He is called "the Unconquered" — let him consider how absurd it is to bear that name when anger conquers him, when he serves his lusts every day, when ambition leads him captive and drives him wherever it pleases. Only he is truly unconquered who yields to no passion and cannot be turned aside from what is honorable by any outward appearance of things. When he is called "Most Serene," let it occur to him that a ruler's job is to calm everything down and to set everything in order.1011 But if anyone, driven by ambition or anger, throws everything into turmoil and confusion through sedition and the storms of war, this title "Most Serene" doesn't adorn him — it holds his own fault up to him in reproach.1213 When he is called "Renowned," let him consider that there is no true honor except what comes from virtue and righteous deeds.1415 But if lust stains a man, greed defiles him, ambition disgraces him — what else is the name "Renowned" but a warning, if someone errs unwittingly, and a reproach, if he sins deliberately?1617 When he hears the titles of his regions, he shouldn't immediately puff himself up as if he were the lord of such great domains. Instead, he should reflect on how much good he owes to so many people as their prince. If someone heaps upon him titles of Highness, Majesty, and Divinity, let him remember that these titles are fitting only for the one who administers his rule according to the example of God, with a certain heavenly greatness of soul.18 When he hears formal panegyrics, he shouldn't immediately believe them or take pleasure in the praise of his own qualities. But if he is not yet the sort of man he is proclaimed to be, let him consider himself admonished, and let him make every effort so that he may one day truly live up to that praise.19 If he already is that sort of man, he ought to strive so that he may become even better than he is. Indeed, he'll even need to regard the laws themselves with suspicion. These things too are sometimes flatteringly presented to the prince — no doubt either collected or composed by those who were devoted to kings or emperors. Since they deny that the prince is bound by the laws, they submit him to themselves and grant him authority over everything. Let him beware of immediately thinking that he is permitted to do whatever he pleases. To a good prince, all things can safely be permitted; to a mediocre one, not all things; to a bad one, nothing.

The Antidote of Sacred Reading

The prince must be fortified by reading Scripture—Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, and the Gospels—interpreted with clarity and brevity, before turning to pagan authors like Plutarch, Seneca, Aristotle, and Cicero.

And Demetrius of Phalerum wisely encourages you to unroll books, because very often a prince's friends wouldn't dare to warn him of things they can learn from those pages. But before this, you must be fortified with the following antidote first. The one you're reading is a pagan; you who read him are a Christian. Although he says many excellent things, he has sketched the model of a good prince too carelessly: beware of immediately thinking that whatever you encounter anywhere is to be imitated — instead, measure everything against the rule of Christ. First, then, careful thought must be given to the choice of authors. For it matters greatly which books a boy first reads and takes to heart. Bad conversation poisons the mind — but bad reading is no less damaging. For those silent letters sink into a person's character and affections — especially if they find a mind already prone to some particular vice. A boy who is fierce and violent by nature will be stirred toward tyranny with very little effort if, unprepared by any warning, he has read about Achilles, or Alexander the Great, or Xerxes, or Julius.20 But today we see very many people — not only the tyrannical, but also the thoroughly unlearned, the foolish, and the childish — delighting in tales of Arthur, Lancelot, and other stories of that sort, so that it would be better to spend one's time on the comedies or the fables of the poets than on nonsense like this.212223 But if anyone wants to follow my advice rather than the traditional way of reading, he should put before the boy the Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and the Book of Wisdom — not so that he gets tangled up by a showy interpreter and the four senses of the theologians, but so that, in a few words, the interpreter may clearly show whatever pertains to the duty of a good prince. Above all, though, the boy needs to develop a love both for the author and for the work. He is destined for the kingdom; here he learns the art of ruling. He is the son of a king, a future king himself; he will hear the wisest king of all — what he teaches his own son, the one he is preparing to succeed him. Then the Gospels. And here it will matter greatly by what means the boy's mind is set ablaze with love for the author and the work. It will also count for quite a lot that the interpreter has skill and a knack for making things click — that he teach briefly, clearly, persuasively, and vividly; not everything, but chiefly what pertains to the prince's office and what helps tear out of the mind the most destructive popular opinions of princes. Third, the Apophthegms of Plutarch, then the Moralia — for nothing more sacred than these can be found — and I would rather have his life set forth than anyone else's.

Reading Historians with Discernment

Historians like Herodotus, Xenophon, Sallust, and Livy offer practical wisdom but also dangerous models; the prince must read selectively, not swept away by the glamour of famous names.

I'd gladly give the next closest place to Plutarch; but to Seneca, whose writings wonderfully stir and inflame the reader's mind toward the pursuit of virtue, lifting it from sordid cares to what is lofty, and everywhere unlearning tyranny. From Aristotle's Politics and Cicero's De Officiis you'll be able to pluck out a great many things — not unworthy of a prince's attention. But Plato has spoken more holily on these matters, in my judgment — and Cicero followed him in part in his De Legibus; for the De Republica has perished. I wouldn't deny, of course, that reading the historians is an excellent source of practical wisdom — but unless you come to it both well-prepared and selective, you'll drink in the very worst destruction from those same writers. Be careful that the names celebrated by the unanimous voice of the ages — whether of writers or of rulers — don't impose themselves on you. Herodotus and Xenophon — both of them pagans — regularly hold up the very worst model of a ruler, even if they wrote their histories precisely so that the storytelling would be engaging or so they could craft the portrait of an outstanding general. Sallust and Livy — I grant it — write many things brilliantly and everything with great learning, but they don't approve of everything they narrate, and some of the things they do approve are by no means worthy of a Christian prince. Be careful how you listen to Achilles — and to Xerxes, Cyrus, Darius, and Julius — so that the glamour of a great name doesn't sweep you away. You hear about great and raging bandits — that's what Seneca sometimes calls them.

Gathering Gems from Dung

Even tyrants occasionally acted virtuously, and these scattered examples—gathered like gems from a dung heap—should stir the Christian prince to shame and greater effort.

And yet, if anything in the records of these rulers turns out to be worthy of a good prince, you'll take care to gather it up like a gem from a dung heap. For no tyrant was ever so completely without any praise who didn't mix in some things that, even if they weren't done out of virtue, could at least be shaped into an example of virtue. There are plenty of things in the letters of Phalaris that wouldn't seem unworthy even for a holy king. And he turned quite a regal invention back against Perillus, the man who had urged his cruelty on him. Alexander did many things savagely, but rightly held back from the captive women of Darius's household, and rightly ordered a woman to be led home when he learned she was married. So these examples need to be selected from many sources, and they stir the heart more powerfully — whether it's pagans or undistinguished men whose examples are cited. If a tyrant, a man estranged from Christ, restrained himself in this way, if a young man and conqueror showed this kind of decency toward the women of his enemies, what should I do toward my own Christian prince? If a mere woman had this much spirit, what should be shown by a man? If that's considered a disgrace when it's given to a pagan prince, and by pagans at that, how much effort should I be putting into avoiding it, when I profess the Christian faith?

Turning Pagan Examples to Christian Use

Flawed examples can be redirected to virtue—Caesar's diligence for the common good, his pretended clemency made sincere—but it is madness for a Christian to take pagan conquerors as wholesale models.

Furthermore, the methods by which examples ought to be applied through amplification — I think we have shown this sufficiently in the little book On the Abundance of Things. Moreover, even flawed examples can be turned to good use. The diligence of Caesar, and the loftiness of spirit that he wickedly displayed in the service of ambition — you should devote those same qualities well, to the benefit of your country. The clemency that he pretended for the purpose of securing and propping up tyranny — you should apply it sincerely, to win the love of your citizens toward you. In fact, the examples of the worst rulers sometimes spark virtue more than those of the best or the mediocre. Who wouldn't the urine tax collected by Titus Vespasian — a revenue drawn from so foul a source — turn away from greed, matched as it is by an equally shameful saying: 'Profit has a good smell no matter where it comes from'? And the detestable saying of Nero — the one he used when appointing magistrates: 'You know what I need, and make sure that no one else has anything' — is a warning to every ruler. In this way, whatever you come across in the historians can be turned into an example of right conduct. Out of so great a crowd of leaders, suppose you choose the best for yourself — say, Aristides, Epaminondas, Octavius, Trajan, Antoninus Pius, Alexander Mamea. But don't choose them with the aim of copying them entirely; rather, pick out what is best in the best, and make that your model. Otherwise, there's also something you should avoid even in David and Solomon, kings praised by God. Otherwise, what could be imagined more insane than for a man initiated into the sacraments of Christ to set before himself Alexander, Julius, or Xerxes as his models — men whose lives even pagan writers censure, if they possessed any sound judgment at all?2425 Just as it is utterly shameful for a Christian prince to be surpassed by these men in anything they did rightly, so it would be the height of madness for him to want to imitate them entirely.26

Reading to Become Better

The prince must read not for entertainment but for transformation, approaching every book with the intention of becoming a better person, especially by recognizing and hating his own vices.

The Prince should be forewarned: the things he has read in the sacred Scriptures are not, for that reason alone, to be immediately taken as models to imitate.27 Let him learn that the battles and slaughters of the Hebrews, and their savagery against enemies, are to be understood as allegory — otherwise, reading them is downright dangerous.28 What was permitted to that people, given the demands of the time, is one thing; what has been handed down to the heavenly people of Christians is quite another.29 Whenever the Prince takes up a book, let him take it up with this intention: not to be entertained, but to come away from the reading a better person.30 The person who is truly determined to become better will easily find in a book the means to be made so. A large part of goodness is simply this: wanting to become good. Take the person who recognizes and hates the disease of ambition, or of anger, or of lust — and who opens a book precisely to be healed of that evil. Such a person will easily find in it the way to drive away trouble or to soothe it.3132

Welcoming Frank Counsel

Truth is heard most safely from books, but the prince must also cultivate friends who admonish freely, pardoning clumsy correction, since a kingdom is never without storms requiring candid counsel.

The truth is heard more sincerely, more fittingly, and with less embarrassment from no one than from books.33 But nevertheless, let the Prince accustom his friends in such a way that those who admonish freely understand they are earning favor.34 This indeed is the task of those who enjoy familiarity with the Prince: to admonish at the right time, appropriately, and in a friendly manner. But it will also be fitting to pardon those who admonish with too little skill, lest those who mean to admonish rightly be deterred from their duty by any bad example.3536 In a severe storm, no matter how skilled the sailors are, they'll still let themselves be warned by anyone at all. But a kingdom is never without its storms. Who could sufficiently praise the civil prudence of Philip, king of the Macedonians, who ordered the man he had secretly been warned by to be free to sit with his cloak pulled up on his knee in a somewhat unbecoming way? What that man did in a trivial matter, a prince must do all the more in the most dangerous affairs of state—undertaking journeys abroad, renewing laws, concluding treaties, and waging war.

Read the original Latin

Atque id fieri non potest, nisi modis omnibus arceantur assentatores, cui pesti maxime obnoxia est magnorum Principum felicitas. Iam ipsa aetatis simplicitas huic malo praecipue patet, partim quod naturae propensione blandis magis gaudeat quam ueris, partim ob rerum imperitiam, quo minus suspicatur insidias, hoc minus cauere nouit. Et ne quis hoc ceu leue malum existimet negligendum, sciat florentissima summorum Regum imperia, linguis adulatorum fuisse subuersa. Nec usquam graui tyrannide legimus oppressam Rempublicam ubi non praecipuae partes tragoediae fuerint assentatorum. Perspectum habebat hoc Diogenes, ni fallor, qui rogatus, quod esset animal omnium maxime noxium; si de feris, inquit, sentis, Tyrannus; si de cicuribus, Adulator. Habet haec pestis blandum quoddam uenenum, sed adeo praesentaneum, ut olim hoc dementati Principes orbis domitores, nequissimis palponibus sese ludendos et equitandos permiserint: et in omnium rerum dominos hi teterrimi homunculi libertini, nonnumquam et serui dominabantur.

Primum igitur prouidendum erit, ut nutrices adhibeantur, aut prorsus immunes ab hoc morbo, aut certe quam leuissime obnoxiae. Nam ipse sexus solet huic malo peculiariter obnoxius esse: deinde plerumque nutrices in matrum abeunt affectus, quarum uulgus liberorum ingenia saepenumero corrumpit indulgentia: imo totum hoc genus quoad fieri potest, arcendum a futuro Principe, natura pene ipsa duobus maximis affine malis, stultitiae et adulationi. Proxima cura erit, ut sodales adiungantur ingenio liberali, et alioqui in hoc formandi ab eo qui instituit, ut comes sint citra adulationem, ut ita consuescant urbane loqui, ne quid tamen in gratiam fingant aut mentiantur. Nam de praeceptore deligendo, iam dictum est.

Neque mediocre momentum est in ministris, qui frequenter obsecundant cupiditatibus puerorum, uel ob stultitiam, uel quod hinc emolumenti nonnihil ad se rediturum sperent. Oportebit igitur hos, quoad fieri potest, cordatos et integros ad id muneris delegare, et insuper monitis ac minis ab assentando deterrere, ac rursum praemiis inuitare, ut sancte suo fungantur officio. Qua quidem in re magnopere conducet, si qui deprehensus fuerit hoc agere, ut alloquiis et obsequiis illiberalibus, Principis animum ad ea sollicitet, quae parum digna sunt Principe, is in aliorum exemplum publice det poenas, etiam capitis si delicti modus hoc postularit. Neque hoc cuiquam crudele uideri debet, si cum furem, qui pauculos nummos forte nactus sustulit, capite puniamus, idque praeter omnium legum ueterum exemplum: de eo extremum sumatur supplicium, qui id inficere uoluerit, quo nihil habet patria melius aut pretiosius. Quod si rei nouitas obstat, quo minus persuaderi queat (tametsi Alexander Romanus Imperator, Thurinum fumi uenditorem, palo alligatum, subiectis uiridibus lignis, fumo necari iussit) arte fieri potest, ut alia uia paretur exemplum, si qui forte de alio quopiam capitali facinore conuictus erit, tamen hoc titulo puniatur, quod Principis futuri mentem pestilenti adulatione corruperit. Si in poenis mali dati rationem conuenit expendere, plus laedit Rempublicam pestilens adulator, qui primam illam Principis aetatem tyrannicis opinionibus corrumpit et inficit, quam qui publicum aerarium expilarit. Qui Principis monetam adulterarit, in hunc exquisitis suppliciis animaduertitur: et propemodum praemium est iis, qui Principis animum corruperint.

Atque utinam saltem apud Christianos minus uerum esset illud Carneadis apophthegma, qui negauit quidquam recte disci a Regum filiis, praeter artem equitandi, quod caeteris in rebus omnibus omnes obsecundent et assententur: at unus equus quoniam haud intelligit, patricius insideat an plebeius, diues an pauper, Princeps an priuatus, tergo excutit, quicumque parum scite insederit. At nunc saepenumero uidemus fieri, ut non nutrices solum ac sodales Ministrique, Principum liberis adulentur: uerum et ipse praeceptor moderatorque pueritiae, suum agat negotium, non huc spectans ut Principem dimittat meliorem, sed ut ipse discedat locupletior. Ad gratiam non raro loquuntur et ii qui de rebus sacris concionantur, aucupantes Principis et aulicorum fauorem: aut si quid reprehendunt, ita mordent, ut tum maxime adulentur. Non haec loquor, quod istos probandos existimem, qui seditiosis clamoribus de- bacchantur in uitam Priricipum, sed quod ab his citra contumeliam, boni Principis exemplar proponi cupiam, nec probari per assentationem in Christiano Principe, quae in Ethnicis damnarunt Ethnici: neque libere monent magistratus, neque satis amice consulunt consiliarii. Nam Proceres, quoniam fere studiis inter se dissentiunt, certatim omnes Principis fauorem ambiunt, sed quo premant aduersarium, uel ne quam ansam nocendi ministrent inimico. Adulantur Sacrifici, assentantur Medici. Nam ab Oratoribus aliunde missis, meras audire laudes, iam ubique solenne est. Supererat una sacra anchora, quae et ipsa saepenumero fallit: nimirum ii quos uulgus Confessores Regios uocat: ii si integri forent ac prudentes, certe in illo altissimo secreto possent amanter ac libere monere Principem.

Verum plerumque fit, ut, dum suis quisque commodis studet, publicae utilitatis rationem negligat. Ac minus quidem laedunt Poetae Rhetoresque, quorum nemini iam ignotum est institutum, Principum laudes non ex ipsorum meritis, sed ex suo metiri ingenio. Longe pestilentius est Magorum ac Diuinorum genus, qui Regibus longaeuitatem, uictorias, triumphos, uoluptates et imperia pollicentur. Rursum aliis subitam mortem, cladem, molestiam, exsilium minantur, abusi ad id spe metuque, duobus praecipuis humanae uitae Tyrannis. Ad hunc ordinem pertinent Prognostae, qui ex astris futura praesagiunt, quorum an ulla sit ars, non est huius loci discutere. Certe ut nunc uulgo utuntur, non mediocrem pestem adfert rebus humanis.

Sed est omnium pestilentissimum adulatorum genus, qui specie libertatis assentantur, ac miro quodam artificio dum repugnant, impellunt, dura obiurgant, laudant. Hos mire depinxit Plutarchus in libello cui titulum fecit, Quomodo dignosci possit amicus ab adulatore. Sunt autem duae aetates quae potissimum expositae sunt adulationi, pueritia ob rerum inscitiam, et senectus ob animi imbecillitatem. In quauis autem aetate stultitia, quae semper philautiam comitem ducit. At recte monuit Plato, periculosissimum esse adulandi genus, cura quis ipse sibi palpo est, et ob id sese facile praebet aliis idem agentibus, quod ipse iam sua sponte agebat.

Est tacita quaedam adulatio et in picturis, statuis ac titulis. Sic Alexandro Magno adulatus est Apelles, pingens eum fulmen manu torquentem. Et Octauius Apollinis effigie pingi gaudebat. Eodem pertinent immanes Colossi, quos olim Imperatoribus erigebant, supra modum humanae magnitudinis. Fortassis hoc alicui leuiculum uidebitur, sed est nonnihil et in hoc momenti, ut Principem eo cultu habituque repraesentent artifices, qui sapiente grauique Principe maxime dignus sit. Et praestat aliquid agentem effingere, quod ad Rempublicam attineat, quam otiosum uelut Alexandrum in cognoscendis causis alteram aurem manu opposita claudentem. Aut Darium malum Punicum tenentem, aut Scipionem sponsam iuueni intactam restituentem, auro quod offerebatur reiecto. Huiusmodi salutaribus picturis decet ornari Principem aulas, non iis quae lasciuiam, fastum aut tyrannidem doceant.

Iam in titulis haud equidem negarim Principi suum honorem esse tribuendum, malim tamen eiusmodi, qui nonnihil admoneant Principem officii sui, hoc est, malim Integerrimum, Incorruptissimum, Sapientissimum, Clementissimum, Beneficentissimum, Cordatissimum, Vigilantissimum, Moderatissimum, Patriae studiosissimum uocari, quam Inclytum, Inuictissimum, Triumphatorem, semper Augustum, ut ne commemorem interim Celsitudines, Sacras Maiestates, Diuinitates, et his etiam adulantiores titulos. Probo morem quo nunc Romanum Pontificem Sanctissimi titulo honorant. Dum enim haec audit assidue, commonefit quid ab illo praestari oporteat, et quid in illo sit pulcerrimum, non si ditissimus sit, aut latissime imperet, sed si sanctimonia praecellat.

Quod si uitari non potest, quo minus haec audiat nonnumquam Princeps uel inuitus, tamen haud oportet dissimulare, quibus magis delectetur. Alexander Seuerus usque adeo fertur inuisos habuisse adulatores omnes, ut si quis salutasset abiectius, aut adulantius inflexisset caput, protinus cum conuicio submoueret hominem: quod si dignitas aut magistratus quempiam a conuicio uindicasset, hunc uultus austeritate castigabat.

Praemonendus est igitur puer, ut hos titulos quos audire cogitur, in suum sibi uertat commodum. Audit, Pater Patriae: cogitet nullum umquam titulum Principibus additum, quam Patris Patriae, qui magis proprie quadraret in bonum Principem. Id igitur sibi agendum, ut hoc titulo dignus appareat. Ita si cogitat, admonitio fuerit: sin secus, adulatio.

Inuictus dicitur, cogitet quam sit absurdum Inuictum dici, quem uincit iracundia, qui quotidie seruit libidini, quem captiuum quo lubet ducit agitque ambitio. Eum demum uere inuictum esse, qui nulli cedit affectui, nec ulla rerum specie ab honesto potest deflecti.

Cum Serenissimus appellatur, succurrat Principis esse officium, omnia tranquillare, omnia componere. Quod si quis per ambitionem aut iram, seditionibus ac bellorum tempestatibus perturbat ac miscet uniuersa, hune titulus Serenissimi non ornat, sed uitium illi suum exprobrat. Cum dicetur Inclytus, cogitet nullum esse uerum decus, nisi quod a uirtute recteque factis proficiscitur. Quod si quem conspurcat libido, contaminat auaritia, foedat ambitio, quid aliud est Inclyti cognomen quam admonitio, si quis erret imprudens: conuicium, si prudens peccet?

Cum audiet regionum titulos, non statim cristas erigat, ueluti tantarum rerum dominus: sed sic cogitet, quam multis bonum Principem debeo. Si Celsitudines, Maiestates, Diuinitates ingeret aliquis, meminerit haec non competere, nisi in eum qui ad Dei exemplum administre imperium, coelesti quadam animi magnitudine. Cum audiet solennes panegyricos, ne protinus credat, aut faueat suis laudibus, sed si talis nondum est, qualis praedicatur, admoneri se cogitet, detque operam ut ils laudibus aliquando respondeat. Si talis iam est, adniti debet, ut se ipso melior euadat. Quin ipsas etiam leges oportebit habere suspectas. Assentantur et haec nonnumquam Principi, nimirum, uel collectae uel conditae ab his qui Regibus aut Imperatoribus erant addicti. Cum negant Principem teneri legibus, eum semet illi submittunt, eum ius in omnia tribuunt, caueat ne statim putet sibi licere quidquid animo collibuit. Bono Principi tuto permitti possunt omnia, mediocri non omnia, malo nihil.

Ac prudenter quidem Demetrius Phalereus ad euoluendos libros inuitat, quod saepenumero, quae non ausint admonere Principis amici, ex his cognoscat. Verum ad hoc prius antidoto praemuniendus est ad hunc modum. Hic quem legis, Ethnicus est, tu qui legis Christianus. Hic cum multa praeclare dicat, tamen exemplar boni Principis parum recte adumbrauit: caue ne quidquid usquam offenderis, id protinus tibi putes imitandum, sed omnia ad Christi regulam exigito.

Ac primum quidem delectus habendus in auctoribus. Plurimum enim refert, quos libros primum legat et imbibat puer. Inficiunt animos colloquia mala; at non minus lectio mala. Abeunt enim in mores et in affectus mutae illae litterae, praesertim si nactae sint ingenium ad morbum ali- quem procliue: ueluti puer natura ferox ac uiolentus, haud magno negotio commouebitur ad tyrannidem, si non praemonitus antidoto, Achillem, aut Alexandrum Magnum, aut Xersem, aut Iulium legerit. At hodie permultos uidemus, Arcturis, Lanslotis, et aliis id genus fabulis delectari, non solum tyrannicis, uerum etiam prorsus ineruditis, stultis et anilibus, ut consultius sit in Comoediis, aut Poetarum fabulis horas collocare, quam eiusmodi deliramentis.

Quod si quis meo uelit uti consilio, statim a tradita loquendi ratione, proponet Prouerbia Solomonis, Ecclesiasticum, et librum Sapientiae, non ut puer ab ostentatore interprete quatuor illis Theologorum sensibus torqueatur, sed ut paucis accommode commonstret, si quid ad boni Principis officium pertinet. Cum primis autem inserendus est amor et auctoris et operis. Regno destinatus es, hic regnandi docet artem. Regis es filius, Rex futurus, audies Regem omnium sapientissimum, quid doceat filium suum, quem ad regni successionem praeparat. Mox Euangelia. Et hic magni referet, quibus modis ad amorem auctoris et operis inflammetur animus pueri. Non parum etiam situm erit in dexteritate et commoditate interpretantis, ut breuiter, ut dilucide, ut plausibiliter etiam ac uiuide doceat, non omnia, sed quae potissimum ad Principis munus attinent, quaeque ad perniciosissimas uulgarium Principum opiniones ex animo reuellendas faciunt. Tertio loco Plutarchi Apophthegmata, deinde Moralia: nihil enim his sanctius potest inueniri, cuius et uitas proponi malim, quam cuiusquam alterius.

Plutarcho proximum locum facile tribuerim Senecae, qui scriptis suis mire exstimulat et inflammat ad honesti studium, lectoris animum a sordidis curis in sublime subuehit, peculiariter ubique dedocens Tyrannidem. Ex Politicis Aristotelis, ex Officiis Ciceronis permulta decerpere licebit, non indigna cognitu. Sed sanctius hisce de rebus locutus est Plato, mea quidem sententia, et hunc ex parte secutus Cicero in libris de Legibus: nam de Republica interciderunt.

Iam uero non negauerim, ex Historicorum lectione praecipuam colligi prudentiam, uerum ex iisdem summam perniciem hauries, nisi et praemunitus, et cum delectu legeris. Vide ne tibi important celebrata seculorum consensu nomina scriptorum aut Ducum. Herodotus, Xenophon, uterque Gentilis fuit, et plerumque pessimum proponunt Principis exemplar, etiam si in hoc ipsum scripserunt historiam, ut aut delectarent narratione, aut egregii Ducis imaginem effingerent. Sallustius, Liuius multa quidem praeclare, addo, erudite omnia, sed non omnia probant quae narrant, et quaedam probant haudquaquam probanda Principi Christiano. Cura Achillem audis, cura Xersem, Cyrum, Darium, Iulium, ne quid te rapiat magni nominis praestigium. Magnos ac furiosos latrones audis: sic enim illos aliquoties uocat Seneca.

Et tamen si quid in horum gestis inciderit dignum bono Principe, id curabis ceu gemmam e sterquilinio colligere. Nullus enim umquam fuit Tyrannus usque adeo illaudatus, qui non aliqua immiscuerit, quae si uirtute gesta non sint, certe ad uirtutis exemplum queant accommodari. Permulta sunt in Phalaridis epistolis, quae sancto quoque Rege uideantur non indigna. Et satis Regaliter in Perillum crudelitatis instigatorem, suum retorsit inuentum. Permulta furiose Alexander, sed recte a Darii mulieribus captiuis abstinuit, et recte mulierem reduci domum iussit, ubi sensit esse coniugatam. Haec igitur e multis erunt excerpenda, et uehementius accendunt Ethnicorum, aut illaudatorum hominum exempla. Si sic sibi temperauit Tyrannus et a Christo alienus, si iuuenis et uictor hanc sanctimoniam praestitit hostium foeminis, quid me facere conuenit erga meas Principem Christianum? Si tantum fuit animi mulierculae, quid a uiro praestari decet?

Si id probro datum es Ethnico Principi, et ab Ethnicis, quanto studio mihi uitandum, Christi religionem profitenti?

Porro quibus rationibus oporteat exempla per amplificationem conferre, satis, opinor, indicauimus in libello, De Copia Rerum. Caeterum et uitiosa exempla in bonum deflecti possunt. C- Caesaris industriam, et animi sublimitatem quam ille male praestitit ambitioni, tu bene impende patriae commodis. Clementiam quam ille simulauit ad parandam fulciendamque Tyrannidem, tu ex animo adhibe ad conciliandam ciuium tuorum in te caritatem.

Quin pessimorum Principum exempla nonnumquam magis accendunt ad uirtutem, quam optimorum aut mediocrium. Quem enim non auocet ab auaritia, Titi Vespasiani uectigal e lotio collectum, et foedissimo facto par dictum Lucri bonus est odor ex re qualibet. Et exsecranda uox Neronis, qua solet mandare magistratus, scis quid mihi sit opus, et cura ne quis quid habeat. His rationibus fiet, ut quidquid obuium fuerit in Historiographis, uertatur in exemplum recte agendi. E tanta Ducum turba, fac, optimos tibi deligas, uelut Aristidem, Epaminondam, Octauium, Traianum, Antoninum Pium, Alexandrum Mameam: nec hos tamen ita, ut totos uelis exprimere, sed quod in optimis sit optimum, id tibi deligas; alioquin est quod uites etiam in Dauide ac Solomone, Regibus a Deo laudatis.

Alioqui quid fingi possit insanius, quam hominem Christi sacramentis initiatum, Alexandrum, Iulium, aut Xersem sibi proponere, quorum uitam incessunt etiam Ethnici Scriptores, si quibus iudicium fuit paulo sanius? A quibus ut superari turpissimum est, si quid recte gesserunt, ita totos imitari uelle Christianum Principem, extremae dementiae sit.

Praemonendus est Princeps, ut nec ea quae in sacris uoluminibus legerit, continuo putet imitanda. Discat Hebraeorum pugnas et caedes, immanitatem in hostes, ad allegoriam esse uocanda, alioqui pestiferam esse horum lectionem. Longe aliud permissum pro ratione temporis illi populo, aliud traditum coelesti populo Christianorum. Quoties Princeps librum sumet in manum, hoc animo sumat, non ut delectetur, sed ut melior a lectione discedat. Facile inuenit unde reddatur melior, qui hoc uehementer studet ut melior fiat. Magna pars bonitatis est, uelle bonum fieri, ueluti qui morbum ambitionis, aut iracundiae, aut libidinis agnoscit et odit, et in hoc explicat librum, quo malo suo medeatur, is facile reperit, quo molestiam uel depellat, uel leniat.

A nullis auditur uerum sincerius, aut commodius, neque minore pudore quam a libris. Sed tamen sic amicos assuefaciat Princeps, ut qui libere monent, intelligant se gratiam inire. Est hoc quidem eorum qui cum Principe consuetudinem agunt, ut in tempore, ut commode, ut amice moneant, sed tamen conueniet etiam parum dextre monentibus ignoscere, ne recte monituri, ullo exemplo deterreantur ab officio.

In graui tempestate quantumuis docti nautae patiuntur sese a quouis admoneri. At regno numquam deest tempestas. Quis satis laudarit Philippi Macedonum Regis ciuilem prudentiam, qui liberum esse iussit eum a quo clam submonitus est, quod pallio subducto in genu parum decore sederet. Quod ille fecit in re leuicula, id multo magis faciendum Principi in rebus patriae periculosissimis, uelut in suscipiendis peregrinationibus, in nouandis legibus, in pangendis foederibus, in mouendo bello.

Notes

  1. 1 ↩natura pene ipsa duobus maximis affine malis: the claim that the female sex is 'by nature' akin to folly and flattery reflects a common Renaissance-era prejudice. The translator preserves the author's meaning faithfully without endorsing the judgment.
  2. 2 ↩in hoc formandi ab eo qui instituit: the syntax is compressed. The sense is that the companions' role in the prince's formation is subordinate to and shaped by the authority of the one directing his education (the praeceptor). The translation renders this relationship clearly without over-specifying.
  3. 3 ↩capitis poenas rendered as 'the death penalty'; capitis refers to capital punishment (literally 'of the head').
  4. 4 ↩capite puniamus rendered as 'put to death'; capite = by capital punishment.
  5. 5 ↩Alexander Romanus Imperator, Thurinum fumi uenditorem… fumo necari iussit: a historical anecdote about Emperor Alexander (likely Severus or another emperor named Alexander) executing an incense-seller by smoke. The identification of the specific emperor is uncertain.
  6. 6 ↩animum rendered as 'soul' here in the sense of the prince's inner life and character; could also be rendered 'mind' depending on context.
  7. 7 ↩The reference is to the younger Scipio Africanus, who famously returned a captured bride untouched to her betrothed and refused a ransom of gold — a celebrated example of temperance and honor.
  8. 8 ↩quam here is comparative ("than"), not temporal; the sense is that no other title fits a good prince more aptly than this one.
  9. 9 ↩sin is adversative ("but if"); secus means "otherwise / differently." The contrast is between the prince taking the title to heart as counsel versus letting it pass as empty praise.
  10. 10 ↩succurrat: jussive subjunctive, rendered as 'let it occur to him'; the verb carries the sense of 'let it come to mind.'
  11. 11 ↩Cum: temporal ('when') chosen over causal ('since') given the context of titles being spoken to the prince.
  12. 12 ↩hune: form uncertain in the source; taken as accusative singular masculine hic, referring back to the person described.
  13. 13 ↩exprobrat: rendered 'holds up in reproach'; the title itself becomes an accusation against the one who bears it unworthily.
  14. 14 ↩Cum: temporal ('when') chosen; the occasion is the speaking of the title.
  15. 15 ↩dicetur: future passive, rendered as present passive 'is called' for natural English; the sense is habitual or expected.
  16. 16 ↩conspurcat / contaminat / foedat: three parallel verbs of defilement, rendered with distinct English equivalents (stains, defiles, disgraces) to preserve rhetorical variation.
  17. 17 ↩The sentence is built on a rhetorical question (quid aliud…quam) followed by two parallel si-clauses, rendered as a dash and parallel phrases for natural English flow.
  18. 18 ↩administre: form uncertain in source; rendered as 'administers' following the most plausible intended sense.
  19. 19 ↩ils: form uncertain in source; rendered as 'that' (referring to the praises) following the most plausible intended sense.
  20. 20 ↩antidoto (ablative) is rendered "by any warning" — the Latin uses the metaphor of an antidote against poison; the sense is prior preparation or cautionary instruction.
  21. 21 ↩Arcturis and Lanslotis are rendered as the familiar English names "Arthur" and "Lancelot."
  22. 22 ↩anilibus rendered "childish" — the Latin literally means "old-womanish"; the sense is feeble, silly, fit for gossip.
  23. 23 ↩deliramentis rendered "nonsense" — the Latin means "ravings, absurdities."
  24. 24 ↩Alioqui rendered 'otherwise' with inferential force, introducing a rhetorical question that draws out the absurdity of the preceding argument.
  25. 25 ↩Sacramentis initiatum ('initiated into the sacraments') refers to baptismal and Eucharistic initiation into Christian life, heightening the incongruity of choosing pagan exemplars.
  26. 26 ↩The correlative construction ut…ita ('just as…so') is rendered with parallel English structure to preserve the comparative logic: being surpassed by pagans in right action is shameful; imitating them wholesale is madness.
  27. 27 ↩The purpose clause (ut…nec) carries a warning force: the prince should not jump from reading to imitation without discernment.
  28. 28 ↩Allegorical reading of Old Testament violence is presented as the safe alternative to literal imitation.
  29. 29 ↩The contrast is between Old Testament dispensation and New Testament calling — a two-peoples theology grounded in historical circumstance.
  30. 30 ↩The non…sed contrast sharpens the purpose: reading is for formation, not pleasure.
  31. 31 ↩The triple aut (or) links three diseases of the soul; the et…et pairs recognition with hatred of the vice; the vel…vel offers two remedies.
  32. 32 ↩The sentence equates the beginning of virtue with honest self-knowledge and the desire to change — a therapeutic model of reading.
  33. 33 ↩Pudor carries both 'shame' and 'modesty/sense of propriety'; 'embarrassment' captures the idea that even a well-intentioned person feels more exposed giving correction face-to-face than a book does impersonally.
  34. 34 ↩Gratiam inire means literally 'to enter into favor' or 'to gain goodwill.' The sense is that frank counsel, when received well, actually strengthens the advisor's standing — an incentive for the prince to cultivate openness.
  35. 35 ↩Parum dextre means 'too little skillfully' or 'with insufficient tact.' The prince is urged to overlook clumsiness in well-meaning advisors so that others are not discouraged from speaking up at all.
  36. 36 ↩Recte monituri ('those about to admonish rightly') uses the future participle to express intention or likelihood — people who would offer proper counsel if not scared off.

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